Introduction
During
adolescence, as children morph from childhood to adulthood, change
takes place through a process called puberty. Puberty begins around the
age of eight to twelve and is triggered by hormonal changes but is not a
process that concludes over night. The onset of puberty arrives under
unique circumstances. It is influenced by a variety of different
variables and its physical side is generally more visible than it’s
cognitive or psychosocial side. Despite popular belief, the
finalization of puberty can surpass the teen years completely and
terminate well into the twenties. (Annenberg, 2007)
In
this stage of life, Biological, Cognitive, and Psychosocial Development
are noted as physical, educational, sexual, emotional, and personality
enhancements that continue to help create new milestones. On the
following pages, we shall discuss these different areas, provide
examples and show how the development of a child/adolescent aged eight
through nineteen progresses. By the end of this document, one should be
able to provide a simple description of this process with little to no
difficulty.
Biological Development
Biological
Development involves changes that are physical in nature. Through the
adolescence years, these changes include internal as well as external
body changes and are stimulated by hormonal development. These changes
take place approximately two years’ earlier in females than they do in
males. Therefore, since this stage of development is gender specific, we
shall separate the two making it easier to explain.
In
General, with girls, the onset of puberty begins around the age of
eight to twelve. Where as with boys, there is a two-year delay that sets
puberty at approximately age twelve to fourteen. During this time, a
girl’s ovaries begin to produce eight times more estrogen than ever
before. A boy’s testis generates eighteen times more testosterone than
ever before. (Annenberg, 2007) This rise in estrogen and testosterone
causes the body to under go transformations such as increased height,
weight, and musculature change. Pubic, under-arm and leg hair begin to
blossom (Lewis, 2007). With girls, hips begin to spread, and breasts
begin to develop. With boys, voices deepen and ejaculation becomes
possible. (Annenberg, 2007) This process seems to lead girls to
menstruation around age thirteen and full facial hair for males around
age 18 as their physical adulthood begins. It should be noted however,
that menstruation can begin at any time during puberty and it is not
abnormal for a young lady to begin earlier or later than her peers.
Over
all, Boys and girls of all ages can experience a variety of issues that
can delay and or speed the maturity process. Some biological variations
include, but are not limited to, things such as stress, body mass, and
disorders such as anorexia. Stress can cause many changes in the body.
It can slow down the creation of hormonal substances or speed the
process. Stress and/or anorexia can cause delay menstruation, cause
irregular bleeding, or temporarily end the process all-together. Body
mass comes into consideration because most girls begin to enter puberty
around the time they reach one hundred pounds. Heavier girls tend to
reach puberty faster than thinner girls and the more actively involved
in heavy sports a girl is will also contribute to the arrival of
hormonal change. Despite the delayed possibilities, most adolescents
reach puberty in average times. Generally, girls will reach physical
adulthood by age sixteen and males by eighteen.
Cognitive Development
Cognitive
development describes the intellectual or educational side of human
growth. It includes but is not limited to the thinking process,
perceptual ability, and communication. During age ten to twelve logical
thought processes become abstract thinking, planning and memory skills
improve, the long-term memory strengthens, and language skills develop
into more complex and concrete forms of verbal communication. By age
fifteen, (Annenberg, 2007) an adolescent’s formal operational reasoning
takes hold and the capacity for the abstract and scientific thought
process emerges. (Health, 2006) Basically, they become capable of
thinking in a new critical, self-conscious ways. However, it is around
this age that sarcasm may seem to slip into the picture as the child
begins to grasp new concepts and becomes less sincere in their choice of
words. This lasts a relatively short time, considering that by age
sixteen to nineteen (Annenberg, 2007), coping skills develop substance
as they learn to integrate rules and consequences into their decision
making, and adolescents become able to better manage their problems and
situations on a day to day bases. (Health, 2006) Basically, this is
saying that the character of the youth becomes that of an adult and
their intellectual skills mirror such improvements.
Psychosocial development
Psychosocial
Development describes more intimate areas of human development. These
intimate areas include the emotional character, personality, and the
ability to form and maintain interpersonal relationships. Many outside
influences as well as the above biological changes influence these
important traits during adolescents.
Between
the ages of ten and twelve, things begin to become complicated for the
child. Not only is he or she facing their ever changing bodies, raging
hormones, other normal day to day challenges, they begin to notice other
things as well. Peers begin to split onto cliques, stereotypes, and
prejudice seems to become more obvious, and a new sexual awakening
challenges their sense of morals, and values (Lewis, 2007). These
drastic changes can play an important role in the way a child portrays
his or her self. Matter a fact; this can be the beginning of an
emotional roller coaster for both the child and his or her parents.
Over
all, a strong support system can make an extreme difference in an
adolescent’s life. If a strong system is in place, it is more likely
that a thirteen to fifteen year old teenager will feel more comfortable
asking advice, thus creating a stronger self-esteem and enabling the
individual to make more responsible choices. (A proper support system
will assure the teen is educated in all areas of potential issues, along
with support the ones at hand) (Cleveland, 2006). When a child
maintains this type of relationship with at least one adult, they gain
self-confidence, and are more likely to separate themselves from
conflict, invest in healthy friendships, value education, hold on to
their virtue, and decline offers of potentially harmful substances. Not
to mention, the more positive the adolescent experience is for the teen,
the more positive it will be for the parent and society as a whole.
Ok,
So, Not all adolescent aged individuals can cruse through life without
chaotic moments and although parental involvement plays a huge role in
adolescent success it’s not the only element that influences behavior.
Matter a fact; many responsible parents have faced heartache when their
child has made bad choices, as well as, negligent and/or abusive parents
who managed to gain responsible offspring with little to no guidance at
all. This is where other variables come into play. Biological,
sociological, or psychological dysfunctions, and peer pressure enhance
the chances of adolescent productivity and negativity (Annenberg, 2007).
Hormonal
changes can create issues such as depression, anxiety, eating disorders,
etc. These issues (among others) can lead to such actions as alcohol
and drug abuse, suicide attempts, eating disorders, and other deviant
behaviors. Teens in these predicaments are also more likely to engage in
unprotected adolescent sexual encounters than those who maintain strong
support systems and healthy self-images. (Which of course is a matter
of life and death) These effects are multiplied when a teen also faces
societal issues such as publicly humiliating situations including being
subjected to bullying or hazing, peer pressure, and the lack of a
healthy support system. Children who face these situations tend to seek
attention from unhealthy sources and need immediate intervention. Common
signs these situations are, lack of conversation, decreased activities,
shakiness, obviously weight gain or loss, lack of appetite, over
eating, pupil dilation, and unexplainable marks (among others).
(Cleveland, 2006) Parents should pre-educate themselves and at the first
sight of these signs provide a comfortable setting for one on one
conversation between parent and child and if necessary seek professional
advice from a qualified therapist to ensure the safety of the
situation.
Conclusion
The
Adolescent era has a lot of incoming and out going obstacles. Each
individual child has a unique personality and should be treated as such.
Parental support continues to play an important role but is not the
only influence. Changing bodies, raging hormones, societal changes, and
peer pressure provide obstacles that may lead to deviant if not
dangerous or even fatal results if not closely monitored and support
granted on an as needed basis. Positive feedback is always helpful and
provides guidance in ways that nothing else can. Over coddling is not
necessary. Basically, since this is a time of learning and mistakes;
unconditional love, guidance, and support are key elements for success.
Remember, we were all kids at one time and we all made mistakes. We all
sought individuality. We all deemed ourselves invincible. We all
learned that most mistakes are small enough, easily forgotten, and
fixable. We may live in a different age, but, even body piercing can be
removed; hair re-grown or dyed, and above all adolescent’s conquered if
our teens are shown the way. Again, The insanity of adolescence is only
temporary with limited to no adverse effects.. When it’s over, our
children will beat the odds and become mature adults. After all, WE DID!
References
Annenberg Media (2007). Discovering Psychology. Age 10-12. Retrieved Jan. 25, 2007
From WGBH Educational Foundation website:
http://www.learner.org/discoveringpsychology/development/10_12.html
Annenberg Media (2007). Discovering Psychology. Age 13-15. Retrieved Jan. 25, 2007
From WGBH Educational Foundation website:
http://www.learner.org/discoveringpsychology/development/13_15.html
Annenberg Media (2007). Discovering Psychology. Age 16-19. Retrieved Jan. 25, 2007
From WGBH Educational Foundation website:
http://www.learner.org/discoveringpsychology/development/16_19.html
Cleveland Clinic, The. (2006) Social Development During the Teen Years.
Retrieved Jan 24, 2007 From: The Cleveland Clinic Information Center Website:
http://www.clevelandclinic.org/health/health-i info/docs/2700/2707.asp?index=9983
Health topic contract (2006). Adolescent Medicine; Adolescent development.
Retrieved Jan. 28, 2007 From University of Virginia Health Systems website:
http://www.healthsystem.virginia.edu/UVaHealth/peds_adolescent/cogdev.cfm
Lewis, Joe (2007). The Physiological and Psychological Development of the Adolescent.
Retrieved Jan 26, 2007. From Yale-New Haven Teachers Institute website:
http://www.yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1991/5/91.05.07.x.html#b
This Blog covers a variety of subjects. Please notice that this section is called a Self-Help "Library". In other words, the information found here should only be used as an EDUCATIONAL TOOL for those who wish to know more about the topics. IF you find that you relate to any of our material, we suggest that you seek help from a legal, medical or mental health professional.
Showing posts with label children. Show all posts
Showing posts with label children. Show all posts
Wednesday, February 13, 2013
New Formations In Developement (Written for Class)
Introduction
As children leave their infant years and move ahead into the early childhood, better known as “the play years”, they again change on every possible level. Biological, Cognitive, and Psychosocial Development are noted as physical, educational, emotional, and personality enhancements that help create new milestones. On the following pages, we shall discuss these different areas, provide examples and show how the development of a child aged two through six progresses. By the end of this document, one should be able to provide a simple description of this process with little to no difficulty.
Biological Development
Biological development covers the changes within a child that are physical in nature. These involve areas such as brain development, and physical traits. Obviously these miniatures, pre-adult, human beings have only just begun to take on a more adult form, and yet their brain will reach 90% of its full futuristic size by the time the child reaches age two (Annenberg, 2007). This, in it’s self, seems almost impossible to believe, as one considers the fact that an average child only gains about three inches and four pounds per year during this time frame. It’s also interesting to note that during this extreme growth sprit, the brain goes through a process called myelination; this process is signified by axons and dendrites becoming insulated with an outside layer called myelin. For the record, myelin is an oily material that speeds the transmission of nerve impulses from neurons to neurons in the brain (Annenberg, 2007). This process does not carry a specific time frame, and may vary depending on the area of the brain in which it happens. These variations determine when the child will be ready to advance in their individual activities. Some of these activities include, but are not limited to, the development of athletic skills, which include actions such as running, jumping, & hopping; along with, the development of fine motor skills such as penmanship and drawing (Annenberg, 2007). These milestones will continue to strengthen as the child continues to grow so long as the child does not face limiting circumstances that would halt the growth of his or her development.
Cognitive Development
Cognitive development describes the intellectual or educational side of human growth. It includes but is not limited to the thinking process, perceptual ability, and communication. It’s actually during early childhood Metacognition, which is the ability to rationalize ones thoughts, forms and allows a child to begin to shape their own opinions of the world around them (Annenberg, 2007). However, it should be noted that it’s not unusual for these thoughts to be completely illogical in nature. To substantiate this statement let’s look at Jean Piaget (1896-1980), the Swiss psychologist, who divided childhood schemas into groups. He said that a child between the age of two and seven resides in the “preoperational” stage (Wikipedia, 2007), which is the second of four stages of cognitive development, the trademark of which is sparse and irrational mental operations. According to him, symbolic functioning, centration, intuitive thought, and egocentrism all represent this stage of cognitive development. Basically, this means symbols and words mean things that aren’t physically available to initiate the thought process, that children see only one side of the situation they are involved in, that they believe in the unseen without any reason at all, that they are incapable of understanding another’s point of view, and that children are unable to distinguish when an object has changed form but has not changed mass (weight). To me, this theory seems to only focus primarily on the negatives of this age when further research shows that on a scholastic level, a child will begin to use mental representations of symbols, such as numbers and words but by age six should have an approximate vocabulary of 14,000 words (Annenberg, 2007). As a mother I know that children this age begin to draw simple images, and cut along dotted lines as well (Jaeckel, 2001). Not to mention, they form new abilities, which allow the child to alter communication styles to meet the expectations of his or her surroundings (Annenberg, 2007). Obviously, the young child has along road ahead but then again, they have already mastered a great deal as well.
Psychosocial development
Psychosocial Development describes more intimate areas of human development. These intimate areas include a child’s emotional character, their personality, and ability to form and maintain interpersonal relationships. These important traits are influenced by parental styles (Annenberg, 2007); this also includes the influences of other promenade individuals such as grandparents, teachers, and etc. This stage begins a deeper need for extended adult supervision as children do not always have the ability to rationalize the consequences of their actions.
Adult supervision should include increased praise and unconditional love. It’s important that adults try to keep an 8:1 positive comment ratio (Funk, 2007). In other words, for every negative thing an adult must say to a child, there should be eight positive ones that follow. Indeed, this isn’t always an easy task and as humans we don’t always remember to count but if adults attempt to provide this support, a child’s self esteem and image will be enhanced and their confidence will strengthen allowing them to confidently embark on newer activities w/ less difficulty (Funk, 2007).
Discipline plays a key role in psychosocial development. A sharp, consistently maintained set of rules and consequences will help to eliminate years of painful backlash, and arguments for a child’s caregiver. All caregivers should maintain these limitations because the more a child’s support system works together the better the system would work as a whole for the child (Funk, 2007)
According to Diana Baumrind’s, 1966, (Grobman, 2003) description of three parenting styles, Parenting influences a child’s behaviors and ability to function. She states that a parent, who possesses a “Permissive” parenting style, acts with acceptance and affirmation, routinely explains rules, and makes fewer demands; while allowing the child to chose for itself what road to follow. This parenting style is more apt to use manipulation and reason than adverse consequences to discourage unwanted behaviors. Diana states that the second type of parenting is noted as the “Authoritarian” parenting style, in which the parent attempts to, not only control all aspects of a child’s decisions but also seeks to hold absolute power in all areas. The child is seen more as an extension of thy self rather than an individual being and therefore the parent attempts to keep the child in its place. This restricts the child’s ability to make decisions based on will without punitive consequences should they defy the parent’s expectations. Last but not least, Diana asserts that there is an “Authoritative” parenting style. With this style the parent not only shares the reasons for their decisions, but takes the child’s feelings into consideration as they make those decisions as well. This provides the possibility of an open give and take relationship, where a child has the ability to grow and experience w/out fear of rejection. Obviously each of the above parenting styles has distinctive results. We will not embark on those results except to say that “Authoritative” parenting seems to be the favored approach because it supposedly creates happy, self-confident, well-developed children. However, It’s my opinion that parents must decide which is the best road for their individual child and each parent will be influenced by their own childhood and the relationships they shared with their parents along with their own experience as the years go by. Children defy the odds of psychological opinions on a daily bases, and history shows that even the most controlling or lenient parent can produce a well-adjusted child. Over all, adult mentoring makes an extreme difference in a child’s emotional and psychological development. The investments of today will contribute to the child’s personal, and professional relationships of tomorrow (Funk, 2007).
Conclusion
As you can see, between the ages of two and six, a child has a lot going on. Their bodies are growing, their physical appearance is changing, and their brain is working behind the scene to create changes in ways that are unique. They learn new skills by watching others, and engaging in several forms of spontaneous play. The actions of adult role models will assist in the learning experience on an psychological, Sociological, and Emotional level because children of this age not only enjoy the attention of others around them; they also enjoy knowing that others are proud of them and their accomplishments. In conclusion, children will learn to understand the world around them while learning to become independent so long as they receive the support they need.
References
Annenberg Media (2007). Discovering Psychology. Retrieved Jan. 20, 2007
From WGBH Educational Foundation website:
http://www.learner.org/discoveringpsychology/development/2_6.html
Funk, John. M.A. (2007) Help Fix that Child. Retrieved Jan 20, 2007
From the Early Childhood News Website:
http://www.earlychildhoodnews.com/earlychildhood/article_view.aspx?ArticleID=469
Grobman, K.H. (2003). Diana Baumrind’s (1966) Rototypical Descriptions of 3 Parenting Styles. Retrieved Jan 21, 2007.
From Developmental Psychology. Org:
http://www.devpsy.org/teaching/parent/baumrind_styles.html
Jaeckel, Jennifer. (2001) Chapter 6 Outline. Retrieved Jan 20., 2007.
From the University Of Michigan Psychology Course Website:
http://www.umich.edu/~psycours/350/jaeckelj/3outline6.html
Wikimedia. (2007). Theory of Cognitive Development Retrieved Jan. 21, 2007
From Wikimedia Free Encyclopedia website:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_cognitive_development
As children leave their infant years and move ahead into the early childhood, better known as “the play years”, they again change on every possible level. Biological, Cognitive, and Psychosocial Development are noted as physical, educational, emotional, and personality enhancements that help create new milestones. On the following pages, we shall discuss these different areas, provide examples and show how the development of a child aged two through six progresses. By the end of this document, one should be able to provide a simple description of this process with little to no difficulty.
Biological Development
Biological development covers the changes within a child that are physical in nature. These involve areas such as brain development, and physical traits. Obviously these miniatures, pre-adult, human beings have only just begun to take on a more adult form, and yet their brain will reach 90% of its full futuristic size by the time the child reaches age two (Annenberg, 2007). This, in it’s self, seems almost impossible to believe, as one considers the fact that an average child only gains about three inches and four pounds per year during this time frame. It’s also interesting to note that during this extreme growth sprit, the brain goes through a process called myelination; this process is signified by axons and dendrites becoming insulated with an outside layer called myelin. For the record, myelin is an oily material that speeds the transmission of nerve impulses from neurons to neurons in the brain (Annenberg, 2007). This process does not carry a specific time frame, and may vary depending on the area of the brain in which it happens. These variations determine when the child will be ready to advance in their individual activities. Some of these activities include, but are not limited to, the development of athletic skills, which include actions such as running, jumping, & hopping; along with, the development of fine motor skills such as penmanship and drawing (Annenberg, 2007). These milestones will continue to strengthen as the child continues to grow so long as the child does not face limiting circumstances that would halt the growth of his or her development.
Cognitive Development
Cognitive development describes the intellectual or educational side of human growth. It includes but is not limited to the thinking process, perceptual ability, and communication. It’s actually during early childhood Metacognition, which is the ability to rationalize ones thoughts, forms and allows a child to begin to shape their own opinions of the world around them (Annenberg, 2007). However, it should be noted that it’s not unusual for these thoughts to be completely illogical in nature. To substantiate this statement let’s look at Jean Piaget (1896-1980), the Swiss psychologist, who divided childhood schemas into groups. He said that a child between the age of two and seven resides in the “preoperational” stage (Wikipedia, 2007), which is the second of four stages of cognitive development, the trademark of which is sparse and irrational mental operations. According to him, symbolic functioning, centration, intuitive thought, and egocentrism all represent this stage of cognitive development. Basically, this means symbols and words mean things that aren’t physically available to initiate the thought process, that children see only one side of the situation they are involved in, that they believe in the unseen without any reason at all, that they are incapable of understanding another’s point of view, and that children are unable to distinguish when an object has changed form but has not changed mass (weight). To me, this theory seems to only focus primarily on the negatives of this age when further research shows that on a scholastic level, a child will begin to use mental representations of symbols, such as numbers and words but by age six should have an approximate vocabulary of 14,000 words (Annenberg, 2007). As a mother I know that children this age begin to draw simple images, and cut along dotted lines as well (Jaeckel, 2001). Not to mention, they form new abilities, which allow the child to alter communication styles to meet the expectations of his or her surroundings (Annenberg, 2007). Obviously, the young child has along road ahead but then again, they have already mastered a great deal as well.
Psychosocial development
Psychosocial Development describes more intimate areas of human development. These intimate areas include a child’s emotional character, their personality, and ability to form and maintain interpersonal relationships. These important traits are influenced by parental styles (Annenberg, 2007); this also includes the influences of other promenade individuals such as grandparents, teachers, and etc. This stage begins a deeper need for extended adult supervision as children do not always have the ability to rationalize the consequences of their actions.
Adult supervision should include increased praise and unconditional love. It’s important that adults try to keep an 8:1 positive comment ratio (Funk, 2007). In other words, for every negative thing an adult must say to a child, there should be eight positive ones that follow. Indeed, this isn’t always an easy task and as humans we don’t always remember to count but if adults attempt to provide this support, a child’s self esteem and image will be enhanced and their confidence will strengthen allowing them to confidently embark on newer activities w/ less difficulty (Funk, 2007).
Discipline plays a key role in psychosocial development. A sharp, consistently maintained set of rules and consequences will help to eliminate years of painful backlash, and arguments for a child’s caregiver. All caregivers should maintain these limitations because the more a child’s support system works together the better the system would work as a whole for the child (Funk, 2007)
According to Diana Baumrind’s, 1966, (Grobman, 2003) description of three parenting styles, Parenting influences a child’s behaviors and ability to function. She states that a parent, who possesses a “Permissive” parenting style, acts with acceptance and affirmation, routinely explains rules, and makes fewer demands; while allowing the child to chose for itself what road to follow. This parenting style is more apt to use manipulation and reason than adverse consequences to discourage unwanted behaviors. Diana states that the second type of parenting is noted as the “Authoritarian” parenting style, in which the parent attempts to, not only control all aspects of a child’s decisions but also seeks to hold absolute power in all areas. The child is seen more as an extension of thy self rather than an individual being and therefore the parent attempts to keep the child in its place. This restricts the child’s ability to make decisions based on will without punitive consequences should they defy the parent’s expectations. Last but not least, Diana asserts that there is an “Authoritative” parenting style. With this style the parent not only shares the reasons for their decisions, but takes the child’s feelings into consideration as they make those decisions as well. This provides the possibility of an open give and take relationship, where a child has the ability to grow and experience w/out fear of rejection. Obviously each of the above parenting styles has distinctive results. We will not embark on those results except to say that “Authoritative” parenting seems to be the favored approach because it supposedly creates happy, self-confident, well-developed children. However, It’s my opinion that parents must decide which is the best road for their individual child and each parent will be influenced by their own childhood and the relationships they shared with their parents along with their own experience as the years go by. Children defy the odds of psychological opinions on a daily bases, and history shows that even the most controlling or lenient parent can produce a well-adjusted child. Over all, adult mentoring makes an extreme difference in a child’s emotional and psychological development. The investments of today will contribute to the child’s personal, and professional relationships of tomorrow (Funk, 2007).
Conclusion
As you can see, between the ages of two and six, a child has a lot going on. Their bodies are growing, their physical appearance is changing, and their brain is working behind the scene to create changes in ways that are unique. They learn new skills by watching others, and engaging in several forms of spontaneous play. The actions of adult role models will assist in the learning experience on an psychological, Sociological, and Emotional level because children of this age not only enjoy the attention of others around them; they also enjoy knowing that others are proud of them and their accomplishments. In conclusion, children will learn to understand the world around them while learning to become independent so long as they receive the support they need.
References
Annenberg Media (2007). Discovering Psychology. Retrieved Jan. 20, 2007
From WGBH Educational Foundation website:
http://www.learner.org/discoveringpsychology/development/2_6.html
Funk, John. M.A. (2007) Help Fix that Child. Retrieved Jan 20, 2007
From the Early Childhood News Website:
http://www.earlychildhoodnews.com/earlychildhood/article_view.aspx?ArticleID=469
Grobman, K.H. (2003). Diana Baumrind’s (1966) Rototypical Descriptions of 3 Parenting Styles. Retrieved Jan 21, 2007.
From Developmental Psychology. Org:
http://www.devpsy.org/teaching/parent/baumrind_styles.html
Jaeckel, Jennifer. (2001) Chapter 6 Outline. Retrieved Jan 20., 2007.
From the University Of Michigan Psychology Course Website:
http://www.umich.edu/~psycours/350/jaeckelj/3outline6.html
Wikimedia. (2007). Theory of Cognitive Development Retrieved Jan. 21, 2007
From Wikimedia Free Encyclopedia website:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_cognitive_development
The Miniture Human (This was an assignment for Class)
Introduction
Around the world men and women embark on the wonderful experience of pregnancy. What does this mean? Well to most of us, it means the formation of a tiny new life but what goes on behind the scenes? How does a baby become a baby? What is the process of biological, cognitive, and psychosocial development when speaking about such microscopic treasures? How does this transfer as birth takes place and the tiny human miniature faces the next two years? On the following pages, we shall discuss these different areas, provide examples and show how the development of a baby as it forms from conception until it reaches age two. By the end of this document, one should be able to provide a simple description of this process with little to no difficulty.
Biological Development
“intro”
Biological development covers the changes within the human structure that are physical in nature. These involve areas such as brain development, and physical traits. In the case of conception, there are thought to be about 40,000 genes mixed to make a kind of genetic cocktail in the nucleus of each human cell. These genes manage everything, and they all interact. Some genes serve to inhibit, suppress, or repress the actions of other genes, and others try to identify and repair genetic and metabolic problems. There are however factors that activate or hide genes, and there are genes that change the speed or likelihood of specific chemical interactions. Because of this, human creation is an amazingly complex process!
“Pregnancy”
Before cells can divide, genes from both the mother and father come together into 23 - chromosome pairs. The DNA sequences comprising genes always go to the same location of a particular chromosome, which for convenience are numbered from biggest (1 - most genetic material) to smallest (22) plus the sex chromosomes (XX female, XY male). Eggs (ova) from Mom and sperm from Dad are special cells that contain a single set of 23 chromosomes. Conception completes the chromosome set and cell replication and differentiation begins: chromosome pairs separate and move to opposite sides of the nucleus, the entire cell divides into two new cells. The process repeats, more cells accumulate, genes in each region turn on or off, which is how individual organs and tissues form, and creation takes place. This process is called prenatal development. (Planet, 2006).
Prenatal development is broken down in what’s most commonly known as three trimesters. Separating pregnancy into three equal terms 1st trimester (germinal), 2nd trimester (embryonic), and 3rd trimester (fetal) makes it easier to understand. During the Germinal stage, conception begins and takes approximately eight weeks to complete. At this point the baby, is called a zygote (A one cell organism formed when the ova and sperm came together as one) (Planet, 2006) During this time the zygote travels down the fallopian tubes into the uterus where it becomes embedded into the uterus wall and the placenta forms to supply the miniature with protection, nutrients, oxygen, and waste removal. Once these things occur, the zygote becomes what’s known as an embryo. (Berger, 2005) The embryonic stage will then last another six weeks during which the miniature will continue to grow and finish forming most of it’s body system; including it’s organs. Basically the embryo begins to form its brain, spinal cord, heart, gastrointestinal tract, vertebra and other bones. Blood begins to pump, even the beginnings of eyes and ears, arms and legs become evident. Interesting how something as small and simple as hair follicles have begun to take shape so soon. Which brings us to the fetal stage (Rauch, 2006).
This is about the time the mother begins to find out she is pregnant. The fetal stage lasts from about week eight until the birth of the child. During this stage the miniature continues to grow as it’s cells divide. It becomes stronger, begins to move and becomes more functionally human. Let’s break it down a little more shall we? Around the ninth week to the third month of pregnancy, the fetus will be approximately three inches long. Its head will be nearly ½ of its full-scale size. Its face will be that of a human w/ closed eyelids that will not open until around 28 weeks. Teeth, hair and genitals are developed and red blood cells are producing in the liver (Rauch, 2006). During the fourth month of pregnancy, the fetus becomes about 6 inches in length, it’s skin covers it’s body in a transparant nature, muscle and bones continue to form and strengthen and the baby can now make sucking faces. The liver, intestants and pancreses begin to create their fluids as well (Rauch, 2006). During the fifth month of pregnacy, the fetus becomes about 8 inches, lanugo hair covers the body, it has eyebrows and eyelashes, finger nails and toenails, and is more active due to an increase of muscle mass. This is when the mother usually begins to feel butterfly movement in the abdomen and the heartbeat can be heard through special medical equipment during the normal prenatal visit (Rauch, 2006). By the sixth month of pregnacy the fetus is about 11 inches and weighs about 1lb 10 oz. It has startle reflexes, and foot/hand prints. Ait sacs are even forming in it’s tiny lungs (Rauch, 2006). As the seventh month of pregnacy rolls around the little one will reach about 15 inches, and almost 3 lbs. The brain begins to develop very rapidly and the nervous system and immune system form as well. A baby born during this stage may very well live even though complications and death are possible(Rauch, 2006). Once eight months of pregnacy copmes to terms, the fetus really does look like a full term baby only smaller. It’s about 15-17 inches, weighs just under 5lbs, and even though it’s lungs are not fully formed is capinle of rythmic breathing. It’s beginning to store iron, calcium and phosphorus in preporation for birth (Rauch, 2006). Which brings us to the ninth and final month., where the little boy or girl will have reached about 16-19 inches weigh 5-7 lbs, have long nails, along w/ courser thicker hair. A baby born at thirty-six weeks can survive and will probaably do so w/ intervention. However it is reccommended that a full term birth take place between 37-40 weeks making a true pregnacy exuivalant to 10 instead of 9 months (Rauch, 2006) .
“Birth”
We are not going to cover the birthing process. However, we will provide a list of things to consider. When thinking about pregnancy and delivery, one should begin to focus on things such as, what type of delivery do you wish to have assisted deliveries, a home birth, water birth, hospital birth, cesarean birth, and natural birth and do you want a midwife or a doctor? What about possible complications? How do you want those handled? And, of course, there are different medicines that can reduce the pain during delivery. You can choose to utilize those or not. The choices seem to be endless.
“Age 0-2 yrs”
By four months of age, a baby should weigh between ten to eighteen pounds, and be between twenty-three to twenty-seven inches long. He or she should be sleeping approximately fourteen to seventeen hours in a twenty-four hour period. They should be able to follow a rattle with their eyes and grasp at it along with hold it in their tiny hands. By this point he or she should also be able to roll over from stomach to back and sit with support (Oesterreich, 2002).
By eight months of age, a baby should weigh between fourteen to twenty-three pounds and be twenty-five to thirty inches long. It’s during this time that first teeth appear so the baby will probably place everything in his/her mouth to chew on them. By now they are capable of eating solid foods and require 3-4 feedings a day not to mention, the introduction of a sippy cup will helpful at this time along with ensuring eleven to thirteen hours sleep and two to three good naps a day (Oesterreich, 2002).
Around one year, a baby will weigh about 17-27 pounds, and be about twenty-seven to thirty-two inches long. They still need eleven to thirteen hours sleep but may stop taking afternoon or morning naps. Bottle weaning should be considered and started. Nourishment includes three square meals a day and two snacks in between (Oesterreich, 2002).
Between age twelve to twenty-four months (1-2yrs), a child will slow down on the milestones; just a little. They will weigh between twenty and thirty-two pounds, be approximately thirty to thirty-seven inches tall, walk well and run well. However their stopping skills will be questionable. A child of this age can drink from a straw, feed them selves, toss objects, open minor cabinets and drawers, and bend over without falling. Potty training can be started during this time depending on the child’s ability to control his or her bladder and cooperation. However completion may take another year or two to complete so patients is required (Oesterreich, 2002).
As you can see the child will more than double its birth weight, will form motor skills that once were mere reflexes, and develop rapidly on a physical level between the ages of conception to age two (Annenberg, 2005).
Cognitive Development
Cognitive development describes the intellectual or educational side of human growth. It includes but is not limited to the thinking process, perceptual ability, and communication. During the first year of an infant’s development, they undergo many many changes. It’s an exciting time for everyone involved.
During the first two months, the baby becomes familure with its home, the people around it, and begins to feel comfortable and aware. He or she probably will recognize the voice of its primary caregivers, and turn it’s head to seek out the direction in which the voice is coming from. He or she may even begin making cooing sounds and having reflex smiling. At this stage the infant will be easily startled and soothed by coddling and/or nursing (bottle or breast).
By the third and fourth months of life the infant will gain much more control over its body movements. It may begin to raise up on its arms while laying on it’s stomach on the floor, or begin stiffening its neck muscles in order to try to control its head. He or she will begin reaching for the objects that are close enough and by four months should be able to grasp and hold those objects. Vocal cords begin to form more logical sounds. Happiness brings squeals and sadness shouts or cries. Of course by four months these sounds can begin to take on even more wordy forms.
Between the ages of five and six months a baby will become a lot stronger, his or her head is steady and most children can sit w/ the help of a pillow. By the end of the sixth month the pillow may even be unnecessary especially since he/she will probably be rolling over and in unique cases standing up. Verbal skills will take on a new focus at this point as consonant and vowel sounds begin to blend themselves and he or she will probably recognize their own name.
Age seven to nine months is when the fun begins. The little one will be fully aware of the parent’s unconditional love and the limit testing will then begin. It’s during this time that babies learn to wipe tables clean, tip over plants, and stick little gadgets in holes. This is an exciting yet dangerous time for the little daredevil because they want to experiment and you want safety first.
As the child reaches nine to twelve months, a child’s strength is great; they are practicing walking, and moving around the home. They are mimicking words such as mommy, daddy, hello, and good-bye. They should be learning to hold the sippy cup and use it instead of a bottle all the time. It’s also during this time that self feeding should be encouraged by letting the little one hold a spoon during meal time (Oesterreich, 2002).
During the second year of cognitive development, a child has the vocabulary of several hundred words and can name the names of their toys. They can use two to three word sentences to describe thoughts and emotions and mimic words that are spoken by others. They are capable of showing their preferences of toys and because of such likes to show their likes between two objects. He or she will listen to short songs and can hum or sing favorite melodies. It’s during this time that the child is capable of using “manner words” such as please and thank you but may need prompted often to do so.
Psychosocial development
Psychosocial Development describes more intimate areas of human development. These intimate areas include a child’s emotional character, their personality, and ability to form and maintain interpersonal relationships.
By the fourth month stage, an infant has learned to cry to communicate pain, fear, discomfort, and loneliness. They enjoy being held, touched and rocked. They will respond and even become excited by the sound of a rattle or bell and return a smile when smiled at.
Around eight months of age, a baby will know it’s own name and respond when hearing it. He/she will show fear; such as falling off a high table or down a flight of stairs. He or she will smile, coo and babble in response to what it sees.He/she will respond to family and close friends. However, Most of the time, he or she spends observing the environment, imitating sounds, and getting to know the familiar scenery.
By age one year, a baby will begin to cling to his or her parent or caregivers, express anxiety towards strangers, and initiate sharing of toys and items w/ the expectation of getting the items back. This is also a self centered mode as the child begins to watch it’s self closer in the mirror and attach it’s self to favorite toys or blankets that they may or may not wish to share.
During the second year of development the child leaves that baby stage and begins to focus on growing up. They begin to use sentences in speech, are aware of the world around them and look for objects that are no longer in view. The most common word in a two-year-old’s vocabulary seems to be no. They have issues with sharing, they get angry, and even throw temper tantrums. This possessiveness knows no rules or boundaries and when confronted creates frustration that generally sends the child seeking comfort with a close friend or family member. Of course not everything about age two is terrible. Children around this age will also seek attention. They will experiment with new skills such as imitating older siblings and parents. They will give hugs and kisses without much regard to reason; which is what makes the frustration of the terrible two’s so enjoyable (Oesterreich, 2002).
Conclusion
As you can see, between the ages of conception and age two, little tikes have a lot to endure. They not only become human, they become intellectuals. They learn to breath, walk, talk, and communicate all in the first year of life and after that it’s simply time to build upon those skills in order to grow up to lead a productive life.
References
American Pregnancy Association (2007). Labor & Delivery Retrieved Jan 20, 2007
From American Pregnancy Association Website:
http://www.americanpregnancy.org/labornbirth/index.htm
Annenberg Media. (2007). Discovering Psychology. Retrieved Jan. 20, 2007
From WGBH Educational Foundation website:
http://www.learner.org/discoveringpsychology/development/0_2.html
Lee, Donna (2006). Your child's 1st year development - mo to mo Retrieved Jan 20, 2007
From Child Study.Net Website:
http://childstudy.net/your_childs_1st_year_development_month_to_month.php
Oesterreich, Lesia. M.S. (2002) Ages & Stages – NB to 1 year retrieved Jan 19, 2007
From The National Network for Child Care Website:
http://www.nncc.org/Child.Dev/ages.stages.new.one.html
Oesterreich, Lesia. M.S. (2002) Ages & Stages – 18 to 24mo retrieved Jan 19, 2007
From The National Network for Child Care Website:
http://www.nncc.org/Child.Dev/ages.stages.18m.24m.html
Planet Psych. (2006) Child Development Retrieved Jan. 20, 2007
From PlanetPsych Website:
http://www.planetpsych.com/zPsychology_101/child_development.htm
Rauch, Daniel. MD (2006) Fetal development. Retrieved Jan 20, 2007-02-09
From the Medline Plus Website:
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002398.htm
Around the world men and women embark on the wonderful experience of pregnancy. What does this mean? Well to most of us, it means the formation of a tiny new life but what goes on behind the scenes? How does a baby become a baby? What is the process of biological, cognitive, and psychosocial development when speaking about such microscopic treasures? How does this transfer as birth takes place and the tiny human miniature faces the next two years? On the following pages, we shall discuss these different areas, provide examples and show how the development of a baby as it forms from conception until it reaches age two. By the end of this document, one should be able to provide a simple description of this process with little to no difficulty.
Biological Development
“intro”
Biological development covers the changes within the human structure that are physical in nature. These involve areas such as brain development, and physical traits. In the case of conception, there are thought to be about 40,000 genes mixed to make a kind of genetic cocktail in the nucleus of each human cell. These genes manage everything, and they all interact. Some genes serve to inhibit, suppress, or repress the actions of other genes, and others try to identify and repair genetic and metabolic problems. There are however factors that activate or hide genes, and there are genes that change the speed or likelihood of specific chemical interactions. Because of this, human creation is an amazingly complex process!
“Pregnancy”
Before cells can divide, genes from both the mother and father come together into 23 - chromosome pairs. The DNA sequences comprising genes always go to the same location of a particular chromosome, which for convenience are numbered from biggest (1 - most genetic material) to smallest (22) plus the sex chromosomes (XX female, XY male). Eggs (ova) from Mom and sperm from Dad are special cells that contain a single set of 23 chromosomes. Conception completes the chromosome set and cell replication and differentiation begins: chromosome pairs separate and move to opposite sides of the nucleus, the entire cell divides into two new cells. The process repeats, more cells accumulate, genes in each region turn on or off, which is how individual organs and tissues form, and creation takes place. This process is called prenatal development. (Planet, 2006).
Prenatal development is broken down in what’s most commonly known as three trimesters. Separating pregnancy into three equal terms 1st trimester (germinal), 2nd trimester (embryonic), and 3rd trimester (fetal) makes it easier to understand. During the Germinal stage, conception begins and takes approximately eight weeks to complete. At this point the baby, is called a zygote (A one cell organism formed when the ova and sperm came together as one) (Planet, 2006) During this time the zygote travels down the fallopian tubes into the uterus where it becomes embedded into the uterus wall and the placenta forms to supply the miniature with protection, nutrients, oxygen, and waste removal. Once these things occur, the zygote becomes what’s known as an embryo. (Berger, 2005) The embryonic stage will then last another six weeks during which the miniature will continue to grow and finish forming most of it’s body system; including it’s organs. Basically the embryo begins to form its brain, spinal cord, heart, gastrointestinal tract, vertebra and other bones. Blood begins to pump, even the beginnings of eyes and ears, arms and legs become evident. Interesting how something as small and simple as hair follicles have begun to take shape so soon. Which brings us to the fetal stage (Rauch, 2006).
This is about the time the mother begins to find out she is pregnant. The fetal stage lasts from about week eight until the birth of the child. During this stage the miniature continues to grow as it’s cells divide. It becomes stronger, begins to move and becomes more functionally human. Let’s break it down a little more shall we? Around the ninth week to the third month of pregnancy, the fetus will be approximately three inches long. Its head will be nearly ½ of its full-scale size. Its face will be that of a human w/ closed eyelids that will not open until around 28 weeks. Teeth, hair and genitals are developed and red blood cells are producing in the liver (Rauch, 2006). During the fourth month of pregnancy, the fetus becomes about 6 inches in length, it’s skin covers it’s body in a transparant nature, muscle and bones continue to form and strengthen and the baby can now make sucking faces. The liver, intestants and pancreses begin to create their fluids as well (Rauch, 2006). During the fifth month of pregnacy, the fetus becomes about 8 inches, lanugo hair covers the body, it has eyebrows and eyelashes, finger nails and toenails, and is more active due to an increase of muscle mass. This is when the mother usually begins to feel butterfly movement in the abdomen and the heartbeat can be heard through special medical equipment during the normal prenatal visit (Rauch, 2006). By the sixth month of pregnacy the fetus is about 11 inches and weighs about 1lb 10 oz. It has startle reflexes, and foot/hand prints. Ait sacs are even forming in it’s tiny lungs (Rauch, 2006). As the seventh month of pregnacy rolls around the little one will reach about 15 inches, and almost 3 lbs. The brain begins to develop very rapidly and the nervous system and immune system form as well. A baby born during this stage may very well live even though complications and death are possible(Rauch, 2006). Once eight months of pregnacy copmes to terms, the fetus really does look like a full term baby only smaller. It’s about 15-17 inches, weighs just under 5lbs, and even though it’s lungs are not fully formed is capinle of rythmic breathing. It’s beginning to store iron, calcium and phosphorus in preporation for birth (Rauch, 2006). Which brings us to the ninth and final month., where the little boy or girl will have reached about 16-19 inches weigh 5-7 lbs, have long nails, along w/ courser thicker hair. A baby born at thirty-six weeks can survive and will probaably do so w/ intervention. However it is reccommended that a full term birth take place between 37-40 weeks making a true pregnacy exuivalant to 10 instead of 9 months (Rauch, 2006) .
“Birth”
We are not going to cover the birthing process. However, we will provide a list of things to consider. When thinking about pregnancy and delivery, one should begin to focus on things such as, what type of delivery do you wish to have assisted deliveries, a home birth, water birth, hospital birth, cesarean birth, and natural birth and do you want a midwife or a doctor? What about possible complications? How do you want those handled? And, of course, there are different medicines that can reduce the pain during delivery. You can choose to utilize those or not. The choices seem to be endless.
“Age 0-2 yrs”
By four months of age, a baby should weigh between ten to eighteen pounds, and be between twenty-three to twenty-seven inches long. He or she should be sleeping approximately fourteen to seventeen hours in a twenty-four hour period. They should be able to follow a rattle with their eyes and grasp at it along with hold it in their tiny hands. By this point he or she should also be able to roll over from stomach to back and sit with support (Oesterreich, 2002).
By eight months of age, a baby should weigh between fourteen to twenty-three pounds and be twenty-five to thirty inches long. It’s during this time that first teeth appear so the baby will probably place everything in his/her mouth to chew on them. By now they are capable of eating solid foods and require 3-4 feedings a day not to mention, the introduction of a sippy cup will helpful at this time along with ensuring eleven to thirteen hours sleep and two to three good naps a day (Oesterreich, 2002).
Around one year, a baby will weigh about 17-27 pounds, and be about twenty-seven to thirty-two inches long. They still need eleven to thirteen hours sleep but may stop taking afternoon or morning naps. Bottle weaning should be considered and started. Nourishment includes three square meals a day and two snacks in between (Oesterreich, 2002).
Between age twelve to twenty-four months (1-2yrs), a child will slow down on the milestones; just a little. They will weigh between twenty and thirty-two pounds, be approximately thirty to thirty-seven inches tall, walk well and run well. However their stopping skills will be questionable. A child of this age can drink from a straw, feed them selves, toss objects, open minor cabinets and drawers, and bend over without falling. Potty training can be started during this time depending on the child’s ability to control his or her bladder and cooperation. However completion may take another year or two to complete so patients is required (Oesterreich, 2002).
As you can see the child will more than double its birth weight, will form motor skills that once were mere reflexes, and develop rapidly on a physical level between the ages of conception to age two (Annenberg, 2005).
Cognitive Development
Cognitive development describes the intellectual or educational side of human growth. It includes but is not limited to the thinking process, perceptual ability, and communication. During the first year of an infant’s development, they undergo many many changes. It’s an exciting time for everyone involved.
During the first two months, the baby becomes familure with its home, the people around it, and begins to feel comfortable and aware. He or she probably will recognize the voice of its primary caregivers, and turn it’s head to seek out the direction in which the voice is coming from. He or she may even begin making cooing sounds and having reflex smiling. At this stage the infant will be easily startled and soothed by coddling and/or nursing (bottle or breast).
By the third and fourth months of life the infant will gain much more control over its body movements. It may begin to raise up on its arms while laying on it’s stomach on the floor, or begin stiffening its neck muscles in order to try to control its head. He or she will begin reaching for the objects that are close enough and by four months should be able to grasp and hold those objects. Vocal cords begin to form more logical sounds. Happiness brings squeals and sadness shouts or cries. Of course by four months these sounds can begin to take on even more wordy forms.
Between the ages of five and six months a baby will become a lot stronger, his or her head is steady and most children can sit w/ the help of a pillow. By the end of the sixth month the pillow may even be unnecessary especially since he/she will probably be rolling over and in unique cases standing up. Verbal skills will take on a new focus at this point as consonant and vowel sounds begin to blend themselves and he or she will probably recognize their own name.
Age seven to nine months is when the fun begins. The little one will be fully aware of the parent’s unconditional love and the limit testing will then begin. It’s during this time that babies learn to wipe tables clean, tip over plants, and stick little gadgets in holes. This is an exciting yet dangerous time for the little daredevil because they want to experiment and you want safety first.
As the child reaches nine to twelve months, a child’s strength is great; they are practicing walking, and moving around the home. They are mimicking words such as mommy, daddy, hello, and good-bye. They should be learning to hold the sippy cup and use it instead of a bottle all the time. It’s also during this time that self feeding should be encouraged by letting the little one hold a spoon during meal time (Oesterreich, 2002).
During the second year of cognitive development, a child has the vocabulary of several hundred words and can name the names of their toys. They can use two to three word sentences to describe thoughts and emotions and mimic words that are spoken by others. They are capable of showing their preferences of toys and because of such likes to show their likes between two objects. He or she will listen to short songs and can hum or sing favorite melodies. It’s during this time that the child is capable of using “manner words” such as please and thank you but may need prompted often to do so.
Psychosocial development
Psychosocial Development describes more intimate areas of human development. These intimate areas include a child’s emotional character, their personality, and ability to form and maintain interpersonal relationships.
By the fourth month stage, an infant has learned to cry to communicate pain, fear, discomfort, and loneliness. They enjoy being held, touched and rocked. They will respond and even become excited by the sound of a rattle or bell and return a smile when smiled at.
Around eight months of age, a baby will know it’s own name and respond when hearing it. He/she will show fear; such as falling off a high table or down a flight of stairs. He or she will smile, coo and babble in response to what it sees.He/she will respond to family and close friends. However, Most of the time, he or she spends observing the environment, imitating sounds, and getting to know the familiar scenery.
By age one year, a baby will begin to cling to his or her parent or caregivers, express anxiety towards strangers, and initiate sharing of toys and items w/ the expectation of getting the items back. This is also a self centered mode as the child begins to watch it’s self closer in the mirror and attach it’s self to favorite toys or blankets that they may or may not wish to share.
During the second year of development the child leaves that baby stage and begins to focus on growing up. They begin to use sentences in speech, are aware of the world around them and look for objects that are no longer in view. The most common word in a two-year-old’s vocabulary seems to be no. They have issues with sharing, they get angry, and even throw temper tantrums. This possessiveness knows no rules or boundaries and when confronted creates frustration that generally sends the child seeking comfort with a close friend or family member. Of course not everything about age two is terrible. Children around this age will also seek attention. They will experiment with new skills such as imitating older siblings and parents. They will give hugs and kisses without much regard to reason; which is what makes the frustration of the terrible two’s so enjoyable (Oesterreich, 2002).
Conclusion
As you can see, between the ages of conception and age two, little tikes have a lot to endure. They not only become human, they become intellectuals. They learn to breath, walk, talk, and communicate all in the first year of life and after that it’s simply time to build upon those skills in order to grow up to lead a productive life.
References
American Pregnancy Association (2007). Labor & Delivery Retrieved Jan 20, 2007
From American Pregnancy Association Website:
http://www.americanpregnancy.org/labornbirth/index.htm
Annenberg Media. (2007). Discovering Psychology. Retrieved Jan. 20, 2007
From WGBH Educational Foundation website:
http://www.learner.org/discoveringpsychology/development/0_2.html
Lee, Donna (2006). Your child's 1st year development - mo to mo Retrieved Jan 20, 2007
From Child Study.Net Website:
http://childstudy.net/your_childs_1st_year_development_month_to_month.php
Oesterreich, Lesia. M.S. (2002) Ages & Stages – NB to 1 year retrieved Jan 19, 2007
From The National Network for Child Care Website:
http://www.nncc.org/Child.Dev/ages.stages.new.one.html
Oesterreich, Lesia. M.S. (2002) Ages & Stages – 18 to 24mo retrieved Jan 19, 2007
From The National Network for Child Care Website:
http://www.nncc.org/Child.Dev/ages.stages.18m.24m.html
Planet Psych. (2006) Child Development Retrieved Jan. 20, 2007
From PlanetPsych Website:
http://www.planetpsych.com/zPsychology_101/child_development.htm
Rauch, Daniel. MD (2006) Fetal development. Retrieved Jan 20, 2007-02-09
From the Medline Plus Website:
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002398.htm
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