Ethics, Controversy, & the Future
By: Jesilyn
Abstract
The
Stanford Prison Experiment has been one of the most ethically
controversial studies in the history of psychology. Some say that the
study was a total disgrace while others believe that without such
procedures our knowledge would be limited or nonexistent. This ignites
the flame for inquiring minds. Just what did happen in the basement of
Stanford University in 1971, how might such a study have affected its
participants and do scientists have the right to perform such research
or does a modern set ethical standards stand in the way? This document
will answer these questions and more as it examines 36 years of
information.
Ethics, Controversy, & the Future
The
Stanford Prison Experiment was conducted by Professor Philip Zimbardo
of Stanford University and Financed by the U.S. Navy and Marines
(Wikipedia, 2007). The purpose of this experiment was to explain how
people develop norms and how the effect of one’s position or title, and
society’s expectations play apart of their reaction when placed in a
replicated prison situation (Zimbardo, 2007). The results were also
meant to assist the military in explaining and correcting the current
problems that existed within their prison system (Wikipedia, 2007).
The
first step in the process was for Zimbardo and his staff to place a
newspaper article in the Palo Alto Times and the Stanford Daily. They
offered $15 a day (which according to Wikipedia is equal to $75 in 2007)
to male college students for participating in their research project
that would study the “psychology of imprisonment” (Zimbardo, 2007). 24
of the 75 men that responded to the article were chosen to participate
because they were considered to be the most psychologically stable and
healthy of choices. These men had no prior arrest records, they had no
current medical conditions, and they had no psychological disorders. Of
course with such a close similarity, the decision of which men would
play which role had to be made. Random assignment (a simple coin toss)
was used as the determining factor thus separating twenty-four men into
twelve inmates and twelve guards.
The
participants were chosen for the project therefore the next step was
for the men to be provided with a document called an informed consent
form. This form, once signed, would certify that the individuals had
been given all the information pertaining to the experiment they were to
take part in. In this case the men would be expected to play the role
of either inmate or guard. They would be observed, filmed, and
participate for the full length of the study as paid volunteers.
Finally, they would agree not to hold anyone responsible for any damage
as a result of the experiment. Once signed, the men were sent home to
wait to be contacted with further instructions; these being phone
calls/letters that never came.
The
contact came with arrests when Palo Alto police arrived at the homes of
study’s “prisoners”. These men were then placed in handcuffs, searched
for contraband, read their rights, and driven to the police station
where they were booked. Five men were charged with burglary, and four
were charged with armed robbery. Once booked, the inmates were dressed
in smocks that resembled dresses (without underwear), rubber sandals,
and had woman’s stocking hose caps placed on their heads and chains with
locks placed on one leg. At this point the prisoners were ready for
transfer to the mock prison where the warden and guards were waiting
with a list of rules that the inmates were to follow. These rules
included such things as silence while resting and eating, the upkeep of
cells, and how the inmate should respond to Arthurian figures. The first
day of the procedure went fairly well even though the process of being
stripped, deloused, and placed in confinement was severely degrading.
Day
two wasn’t quite as easy as angered, profanity screaming inmates placed
their beds against cell doors, removed their caps, and tore their
numbers off their shirts. This sparked anger in the guards making them
retaliate with force. They began using fire extinguishers on the inmates
until they could invade the cells after which they stripped the cells
and the inmates of their clothing and began their own style of
intimidation. What had started as three guards for an eight hour shift
turned into nine guards, this wasn’t going to work. So, they came up
with a plan. The made one cell a “good boy” cell, placed three men in
that cell. These men got back their clothes, were fed and allowed to
bathe. The rest were not. After a while those three were removed and
three others were placed in their place. This process caused the inmates
to believe that someone was playing informant which created negative
feelings amongst the inmates and gave the guards the upper hand because
it separated the offense. This gave the guards more power and allowed
the guards to lower their numbers back down to three.
For
the remainder of the time things really began to spin out of control.
The guards grew more and more abusive. Corporal punishment became brutal
beatings. Military like exercise used as adverse therapy because
abusive as guards applied pressure to the backs of the inmates. Restroom
breaks were taken away and men were forced to use buckets that they
were not allowed to empty. Food was withheld. Not to mention, it got
even worse at night when the guards thought the cameras were off.
The
worst part about it is that everyone got so wrapped up in their roles
that no one realized that the experiment had went too far. The inmates
had forgotten that this was a paid experiment, which they were allowed
to quit. They had become inmate number so in so, and were telling each
other that they couldn’t leave. The guards had grown in to their role so
much that no one seen the inmates as being equal men anymore. They were
the bad inmates, nothing more nothing less. And even Dr. Zimbardo was
caught up in the drama of it all. He was suppose to be the one watching
and making sure the safety of everyone was ensured but he was more
concerned with running the prison than being a researcher. Nothing could
prove that more than the first visitation day when the guards forced
the inmates to clean the cells and themselves. They couldn’t have the
public knowing what was actually happening in that basement now could
they! By cleaning up the mess they were covering up their actions which
is probably why parents, friends and associates didn’t show concern when
they came to visit. I mean seriously, it was an experiment. Guests seen
a clean atmosphere, a pretty, friendly receptionist, and were only
there a limited time. Not to mention, back then, men were thought to be
strong willed, with even stronger egos. Basically that’s saying most
believed that the experiment was only designed to last for two weeks so
what harm could be done in two weeks. Therefore between the cover, up
done by the team and the outsiders expectations the abuse of the
“inmates” went unnoticed. That is it went unnoticed until Christina
Maslach came to view the progress of the study.
Christina
Maslach an assistant professor at Berkeley and the romantic companion
of Zimbardo became apart of the experiment on the fifth day when she
arrived on site to familiarize herself with the setting. She had agreed
to assist with interviews, but had not been apart of the planning or
observation process. Obviously her doctorate from Stanford hadn’t
prepared her for what she was about to see, because once inside she
became appalled by the view. Although she was a psychologist and was
supposed to understand, when it came down to it the whole situation made
her ill. She couldn’t bear watching what was happening to those young
men and these emotions would later explode as Zimbardo attempts to gain
her opinion of his experiment. Now whether it was this extraordinary
conversation, the actual abuse taking place between the guards and the
inmates, or a combination of both Maslach’s involvement turned her into a
hero. She became known as "the one who stopped the Stanford Prison
Experiment." (O’Toole, 1997)
So
the question here is what caused Maslach to contest the actions taking
place within the mock prison? The answer is ethics. Ethics is an
individual’s interpretation of right and wrong. In Maslach’s case it was
a matter of personal ethics. She could not Handel what was taking
place. For lack of better words, it bothered her. Now, personal ethics
differ from professional ethics because professional ethics involve
public decisions and such a responsibility requires guidelines, which is
why public agencies developed the “codes of ethics”. Basically, these
documents provide written answers to problems incase an issue should
arise during professional interactions. Obviously, the Stanford Prison
Experiment had become one of those types of situations. Now, despite
popular belief; the American Psychological Association did conduct a
complete investigation of Zimbardo and the experiment in 1973. This
investigation concluded that all ethical standards in place at the time
had been followed. So, the scrutiny being faced by the experiment was on
a personal ethics level. This lead officials to make changes in the APA
Code of Ethics. Now, we aren’t actually going to discuss those
changes; we are however going to discuss the major ethical violations
that an experiment like this would create a study such as the one above
were to happen in today’s society.
According
to the American Psychological Association’s most recent version of the
Ethical Code of Conduct, The whole experiment began as an ethical
violation. Section 8.02 states that when doing research, participants
have the right to withdraw their service at anytime (even after the
study has begun) and that any variations from or consequences for such
action should be documented prior to the beginning of the study in the
informed consent form. (APA, 2007).
In the case of the Stanford Prison experiment, this did not happen.
Some participant’s requests to quit were overlooked and others were told
they could quit only if they gave up their pay. Sadly this may have
been prevented if Zimbardo would have followed today’s Section 3.04,
which states that psychologists are to avoid harm while working with
others. (APA, 2007).
You see, in 1971, not only were the students subjected to physical and
emotional abuse but the abuse was witnessed by the professional in
charge of the operation as he himself preformed the job of
superintendent. In other words, Zimbardo had placed himself in a dual
relationship. Today this would violate section 3.05 due to the fact
that during the role of superintendent, Zimbardo became so involved and
his judgment so impaired that he was incapable of performing his duties
as a psychologist/researcher. (This also violates Section 3.06
“Conflict of Interest”, 3.08 “Exploitative Relationships” and 8.04
“Patient, Student, and Subordinate Research Participants”, because they
hold similar meanings). (APA, 2007) Actions of abuse and neglect of this
nature could have caused severe long-term psychological damage to his
subjects.
Psychological
effects due to incarceration are not unusual and often vary from
individual to individual. It’s probably safe to say that most people
would never have thought a two week study would leave permanent damage.
However due to the length of this study, the “institutionalized”
mentality of the inmates, and the abusive behavior of the guards, one
could project the possibility of many post experimental problems amongst
the individuals who participated in the study. For instance, the
inmates were placed in degrading, circumstances, humiliated, and some of
them were expelled from the project for sensitive reasons. The fact is a
situation like this could at the very least cause problems of lowered
self-esteem or worse it could have created much more severe reactions
such as post traumatic stress syndrome. Post-traumatic stress
syndrome’s symptoms include things like reoccurring nightmares,
insomnia, detachment, loss of appetite and irritability. Other reactions
to PTS include clinical depression (Bi-polar disorder), anxiety
disorder, and addictions. (Wikipedia, 2007). Of course, I believe these
same effects could have occurred in the guards who felt over come by
peer pressure to be a person who they weren’t and act in ways they felt
were unethical as well. However, in the other guards, I feel the
experiment may have opened doors to negative psychological issues that
would be dangerous to society. For example, Power and control can become
an addictive force in a person’s life. Matter a fact when some people
accidental stumble upon their domineering side they become consumed by
their own inward thought and in return create a chain of events that may
eventually lead to criminal acts. This by no means is suggesting that
incarceration is a negative force that should be eliminated, nor is it
saying that studies like the Stanford Prison Experiment should not
exist.
Conclusion
The
Stanford Prison Experiment proved that psychologically healthy
individuals could become aggressive or depressed when placed in a mock
prison environment. It also showed that researchers (Zimbardo, 2007) can
also take on such characteristics when they place themselves in dual
relationships. If this could happen to an educated, law-biding person in
a simulated setting, can you imagine the adverse effects that the
actual correctional system creates with their long term incarcerations?
The fact is with out studies like this we would have never known the
answers to questions like these and others. That is why it is so
important that psychology finds a way to continue to do this type of
research even if it defies what society believes to be ethical or
humane. Of course, it would be helpful if researchers would do a better
job of not only planning their projects to include each individual’s
duties, but also place a general requirement for the participants to
under extensive counseling after the experiment ends. These techniques
would help insure the safety of not only the participants but society as
a whole.
Annotated Bibliography
American
Psychological Association (APA). (2000). Ethical Principles of
Psychologists and Code of Conduct. Retrieved June 2, 2007. From the
American Psychological Association Website:
http://www.apa.org/ethics/code2002.html
This
website covers the professional ethic guidelines for psychologists. In
my essay I refer to sections 3.04 Avoiding Harm, 3.05 Multiple
Relationships, 3.06 Conflict of Interest, 3.08 Exploitative
Relationships, 3.07 Sexual Relationships With Students and Supervisees,
8.02 Informed Consent to Research, and 8.04 Client/Patient, Student, and
Subordinate Research Participants.
O’Toole,
Kathleen. (1997). The Stanford Prison Experiment: Still powerful after
all these years. Retrieved June 2, 2007. From the Stanford
University News Website:
http://www.stanford.edu/dept/news/pr/97/970108prisonexp.html
This
article provides explicit details about the conversation that took
place between Zimbardo and Maslach the night before the experiment
ended. It shows how personal ethics played a role in the entire
situation.
Wikipedia. (2007). Stanford prison experiment. Retrieved June, 2, 2007.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Website:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_prison_experiment#Goals_and_methods
This
website provides a large variety of information about the prison
experiment including ethical views and intimate details that I used
while writing my essay.
Zimbardo, P. (2007.). The Stanford Prison Experiment. Retrieved June 2, 2007, from The Standford Prison Experiment Website:
http://www.prisonexp.org/
This website provides explicit details that happen during the process of the Stanford Prison Experiment.
This Blog covers a variety of subjects. Please notice that this section is called a Self-Help "Library". In other words, the information found here should only be used as an EDUCATIONAL TOOL for those who wish to know more about the topics. IF you find that you relate to any of our material, we suggest that you seek help from a legal, medical or mental health professional.
Wednesday, February 13, 2013
The Inevitable Passage (Written for Class)
Introduction
In this stage of life, Biological, Cognitive, and Psychosocial Development are noted as physical, educational, emotional, and personality changes that individuals experience after the age of sixty-five. On the following pages, we shall discuss these different areas, and provide examples to show how the ageing adult develops through their later years, how they cope with such changes and how these changes impacts the lives of those who love them. By the end of this document, one should be able to provide a simple description of this process with little to no difficulty.
Biological Development
“Overview”
In an age where the human species lives thirty years longer than they once did, biological development beyond age sixty-five becomes a “strive to survive” situation. New development does not take on positive forms by it’s self. However, despite societies negative views on aging, individuals over the age of sixty-five are not senile, frail, or isolated. Their brain may become physically smaller, and process slower (Anneberg, 2007) but, with positive adjustments individuals can and will lead happy, healthy and productive lives for many years to come (Berger, 2005). Basically, we can only enhance what we already have through proper diet, exercise, and medical care (Berger, 2005). This can slow the aging process but requires dedication and is enhanced and limited by a multitude of variables.
Positively speaking, individuals who stop or do not smoke and/or improve diet have a better chance of escaping heart disease, and strokes. Exercise and other physical activities in moderation not only provides ways to stay busy, but also relieves symptoms of some ailments while preventing others from occurring; specifically diabetes and cancer. Regular medical check-ups can provide early detection and in some cases help to eliminate long-term effects of certain medical problems. (Special notes include; use of antioxidants and anti-inflammatory medication such as aspirin, or Ibuprofen helps maintain blood circulation and brain functioning (Berger, 2005).)
On a negative note, older individuals face other medical conditions. Some of these conditions are vision and hearing related, as sensory organs naturally weaken. While others involve more severe issues with the heart; such as heart disease. Of course some of these medical problems have yet to meet a cure; such as Alzheimer’s (Berger, 2005).
Alzheimer’s disease is a form of dementia and is associated with the ageing process. This disease slows and ultimately destroys normal brain functioning. This horrifying disease has been proven enhanced by genetic causes. More specifically, if an individual carries one set of Dementia genes they may possibly face this disease by the age of eighty, however if the individual carries two copies of this gene they are guaranteed to suffer the effects. (Only ten percent of people have the gene to protect against dementia, and more than half do not carry a gene that will protect or create destruction at all [Berger, 2005]). Also See Cognitive Development, & Psychosocial development.
Cognitive Development
Cognitive development describes the intellectual or educational side of human growth. It includes but is not limited to the thinking process, perceptual ability, and communication (Berger, 2005). Beyond age sixty-five, this process takes a new role. Although the human body is capable of intellectual enhancement until it’s final breath, this stage of development declines or slows the ability to receive store, organize and interpret information on the same level as it once did. As some ability’s increase such as vocabulary, wisdom based problem solving and systematic knowledge, others decrease such as short-term memory, memory based language, and abilities that are based on information-processing speed. This deterioration can be slowed through cognitive based activities (Anneberg,2007) . Some recent suggestions include but are not limited to, reading, arts and crafts, journalism, Internet communication, volunteer work, and group activities. Such activities allow the mind to continue to process large quantities of information, lowering the possibility of stagnation, and adding a type of quality to life (Berger, 2005).
Of course, Cognitive Development isn’t without delimit. As an example we shall look again at Dementia. As stated before, dementia attacks the brain functions, which ultimately means it attacks the cognitions. As the physical aspects of dementia increase so does the intellectual or cognitive patterns. At first the individual will face issues when trying to learn new information, they may even find it hard to produce their thoughts into words. This is followed by the inability to accomplish simple tasks or the inability to find known locations; such as the bathroom. By the end of this horrific disease the individual will lack the basic communication skills all together. It’s a slow process but over time, a definite one (Annenberg, 2007) . ALSO SEE BIOSOCIAL AND PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT.
Psychosocial development
Psychosocial Development describes more intimate areas of human development. These intimate areas include the emotional character, personality, and the ability to form and maintain interpersonal relationships (Berger, 2005).
During Late adulthood, individuals experience many biological, cognitive and social changes that bring with them psychological changes. These changes reflect in their everyday lives. Coping skills, sensitivity, and over all self-image become evident to those closest to them. Livelihood and satisfaction depends strongly on family involvement (Anneberg, 2007); the strongest of which being that of a spouse (Berger, 2005). With a strong support system in place perseverance seems almost unconditional; that is until disaster strikes. For this article we are going to touch on only a few, less than positive aspects of aging.
The first topic will seem more like a challenge but for some elderly individuals this challenge can seem for filling, un-replaceable, and yet excruciating at the same time. The topic is “Grandchildren”. For most, becoming a grandparent is the most enjoyable time in a person’s life. It’s a time to enjoy the seeds, and then return them to the basket, only to watch them mature into it’s own tree of life. It’s been described as an indescribable experience; one of great joy and happiness. One person put it well when they said that they never imagined they could love something more than their own child; but they now do. (This seems to be the over all feelings of most grandparents including myself.)
However, this experience can come to a sudden end when grandparents face the challenge of raising their child’s little seeds. (A situation that has increased 97% since 1970 [Berger, 2005].) This type of situation usually happens under un-expectant and excruciating circumstances. Obviously, not many people take on such responsibility to continue to feel young. A decision like this is one based on love and occasionally by guilt from past experience. Which is where the stress begins. Between the generation gap, social trend change, physical and financial declines, many grandparents are caught in a catch 22; either they do the best they can, or lose the child/ren and the connection they love so much. Live is simply too precious to walk away and miss the milestones. Society has already lost too much of its family bond it doesn’t need to lose further so more and more grandparents hold on.
The second topic of discussion is dementia. Again, Dementia hits an individual in all aspects of their lives. As the body and brain diminishes psychological changes unfold as well. The individual will become confused, aggravated, anxious, and often depressed. These changes often transfer to the family as well. It’s not easy to watch a love one slip away, slowly suffers small deaths until they are no longer but a shell of the person they once were. Obviously, most people who suffer from dementia would feel true embarrassment if they knew exactly what they were doing.
The third and final area we will cover is Death. (We shall start with personal death, then cover interpersonal relationship loss.) Obviously for some, death is the scariest word in the human vocabulary. It brings about thoughts of sadness, fear, and anxiety. It’s associated with caskets, loss, and disposal. But in reality, death doesn’t have to be a total negative experience.
According to Dr. Kebler-Ross (Young, 2006), when a person faces a terminal illness they face stages of as denial, anger, bargaining, depression and acceptance. Each of these stages is marked by specific traits. Denial, allows the person to place the condition on the back burner and simply not deal with the repercussions. Anger, is a natural emotion that individuals feel but in this case the individual may feel not only angry at the disease but at the doctor who informed them, the people who will survive them, and themselves for being sick to begin with. Bargaining, This usually takes place with the power greater than them selves. “Dear God, If you take away this______, I will________.” Of course life doesn’t work that way, but it’s a stage. Depression, is quite self-explanatory, however it’s often marked by withdraw and other negative reactions when dealing with an expectant death. Lastly acceptance, it becomes time to file away the illness and begin to focus on the arrangements, wills, goodbyes, and other obligations. As long as a person receives humane treatment, is allowed to express emotions, participates in their care, is provided spiritual freedom, and separated from un-necessary pain the person will experience what is called a good death (Berger, 2005). The effects of a good death will remarkably influence the responses of those left behind.
Which brings us to the topic of survivors of spousal/significant other death. Shock, protest, disorganization and reorganization mark four of the greatest stages of surviving the loss of a loved one. Basically, a person will be upset and may even be lost in denial. They may go as far as to say, “__________ is on vacation.” But, eventually that denial subsides and they are forced to acknowledge the situation. When this happens, the person may feel very over whelmed, anxious, and confused. These feelings will pass, and then it’s generally time to get affairs in order. Maybe the individual’s prospect on life changes, for some, personal growth is experienced and they begin to focus their grief into a positive voyage.
References
Annenberg Media (2007). Discovering Psychology. Age 65+. Retrieved Feb. 1, 2007
From WGBH Educational Foundation website:
http://www.learner.org/discoveringpsychology/development/65.html
Berger, Kathleen (2005). The Developing Person through the life span (6th ed.)
New York: Worth Publications.
Young, Carley (2006) 5 Stages of Dealing with Grief and Sorrow Retrieved Feb 1 2007
From The Life Script website:
http://www.lifescript.com/channels/well_being/meditations_motivations/facing_loss.asp?
In this stage of life, Biological, Cognitive, and Psychosocial Development are noted as physical, educational, emotional, and personality changes that individuals experience after the age of sixty-five. On the following pages, we shall discuss these different areas, and provide examples to show how the ageing adult develops through their later years, how they cope with such changes and how these changes impacts the lives of those who love them. By the end of this document, one should be able to provide a simple description of this process with little to no difficulty.
Biological Development
“Overview”
In an age where the human species lives thirty years longer than they once did, biological development beyond age sixty-five becomes a “strive to survive” situation. New development does not take on positive forms by it’s self. However, despite societies negative views on aging, individuals over the age of sixty-five are not senile, frail, or isolated. Their brain may become physically smaller, and process slower (Anneberg, 2007) but, with positive adjustments individuals can and will lead happy, healthy and productive lives for many years to come (Berger, 2005). Basically, we can only enhance what we already have through proper diet, exercise, and medical care (Berger, 2005). This can slow the aging process but requires dedication and is enhanced and limited by a multitude of variables.
Positively speaking, individuals who stop or do not smoke and/or improve diet have a better chance of escaping heart disease, and strokes. Exercise and other physical activities in moderation not only provides ways to stay busy, but also relieves symptoms of some ailments while preventing others from occurring; specifically diabetes and cancer. Regular medical check-ups can provide early detection and in some cases help to eliminate long-term effects of certain medical problems. (Special notes include; use of antioxidants and anti-inflammatory medication such as aspirin, or Ibuprofen helps maintain blood circulation and brain functioning (Berger, 2005).)
On a negative note, older individuals face other medical conditions. Some of these conditions are vision and hearing related, as sensory organs naturally weaken. While others involve more severe issues with the heart; such as heart disease. Of course some of these medical problems have yet to meet a cure; such as Alzheimer’s (Berger, 2005).
Alzheimer’s disease is a form of dementia and is associated with the ageing process. This disease slows and ultimately destroys normal brain functioning. This horrifying disease has been proven enhanced by genetic causes. More specifically, if an individual carries one set of Dementia genes they may possibly face this disease by the age of eighty, however if the individual carries two copies of this gene they are guaranteed to suffer the effects. (Only ten percent of people have the gene to protect against dementia, and more than half do not carry a gene that will protect or create destruction at all [Berger, 2005]). Also See Cognitive Development, & Psychosocial development.
Cognitive Development
Cognitive development describes the intellectual or educational side of human growth. It includes but is not limited to the thinking process, perceptual ability, and communication (Berger, 2005). Beyond age sixty-five, this process takes a new role. Although the human body is capable of intellectual enhancement until it’s final breath, this stage of development declines or slows the ability to receive store, organize and interpret information on the same level as it once did. As some ability’s increase such as vocabulary, wisdom based problem solving and systematic knowledge, others decrease such as short-term memory, memory based language, and abilities that are based on information-processing speed. This deterioration can be slowed through cognitive based activities (Anneberg,2007) . Some recent suggestions include but are not limited to, reading, arts and crafts, journalism, Internet communication, volunteer work, and group activities. Such activities allow the mind to continue to process large quantities of information, lowering the possibility of stagnation, and adding a type of quality to life (Berger, 2005).
Of course, Cognitive Development isn’t without delimit. As an example we shall look again at Dementia. As stated before, dementia attacks the brain functions, which ultimately means it attacks the cognitions. As the physical aspects of dementia increase so does the intellectual or cognitive patterns. At first the individual will face issues when trying to learn new information, they may even find it hard to produce their thoughts into words. This is followed by the inability to accomplish simple tasks or the inability to find known locations; such as the bathroom. By the end of this horrific disease the individual will lack the basic communication skills all together. It’s a slow process but over time, a definite one (Annenberg, 2007) . ALSO SEE BIOSOCIAL AND PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT.
Psychosocial development
Psychosocial Development describes more intimate areas of human development. These intimate areas include the emotional character, personality, and the ability to form and maintain interpersonal relationships (Berger, 2005).
During Late adulthood, individuals experience many biological, cognitive and social changes that bring with them psychological changes. These changes reflect in their everyday lives. Coping skills, sensitivity, and over all self-image become evident to those closest to them. Livelihood and satisfaction depends strongly on family involvement (Anneberg, 2007); the strongest of which being that of a spouse (Berger, 2005). With a strong support system in place perseverance seems almost unconditional; that is until disaster strikes. For this article we are going to touch on only a few, less than positive aspects of aging.
The first topic will seem more like a challenge but for some elderly individuals this challenge can seem for filling, un-replaceable, and yet excruciating at the same time. The topic is “Grandchildren”. For most, becoming a grandparent is the most enjoyable time in a person’s life. It’s a time to enjoy the seeds, and then return them to the basket, only to watch them mature into it’s own tree of life. It’s been described as an indescribable experience; one of great joy and happiness. One person put it well when they said that they never imagined they could love something more than their own child; but they now do. (This seems to be the over all feelings of most grandparents including myself.)
However, this experience can come to a sudden end when grandparents face the challenge of raising their child’s little seeds. (A situation that has increased 97% since 1970 [Berger, 2005].) This type of situation usually happens under un-expectant and excruciating circumstances. Obviously, not many people take on such responsibility to continue to feel young. A decision like this is one based on love and occasionally by guilt from past experience. Which is where the stress begins. Between the generation gap, social trend change, physical and financial declines, many grandparents are caught in a catch 22; either they do the best they can, or lose the child/ren and the connection they love so much. Live is simply too precious to walk away and miss the milestones. Society has already lost too much of its family bond it doesn’t need to lose further so more and more grandparents hold on.
The second topic of discussion is dementia. Again, Dementia hits an individual in all aspects of their lives. As the body and brain diminishes psychological changes unfold as well. The individual will become confused, aggravated, anxious, and often depressed. These changes often transfer to the family as well. It’s not easy to watch a love one slip away, slowly suffers small deaths until they are no longer but a shell of the person they once were. Obviously, most people who suffer from dementia would feel true embarrassment if they knew exactly what they were doing.
The third and final area we will cover is Death. (We shall start with personal death, then cover interpersonal relationship loss.) Obviously for some, death is the scariest word in the human vocabulary. It brings about thoughts of sadness, fear, and anxiety. It’s associated with caskets, loss, and disposal. But in reality, death doesn’t have to be a total negative experience.
According to Dr. Kebler-Ross (Young, 2006), when a person faces a terminal illness they face stages of as denial, anger, bargaining, depression and acceptance. Each of these stages is marked by specific traits. Denial, allows the person to place the condition on the back burner and simply not deal with the repercussions. Anger, is a natural emotion that individuals feel but in this case the individual may feel not only angry at the disease but at the doctor who informed them, the people who will survive them, and themselves for being sick to begin with. Bargaining, This usually takes place with the power greater than them selves. “Dear God, If you take away this______, I will________.” Of course life doesn’t work that way, but it’s a stage. Depression, is quite self-explanatory, however it’s often marked by withdraw and other negative reactions when dealing with an expectant death. Lastly acceptance, it becomes time to file away the illness and begin to focus on the arrangements, wills, goodbyes, and other obligations. As long as a person receives humane treatment, is allowed to express emotions, participates in their care, is provided spiritual freedom, and separated from un-necessary pain the person will experience what is called a good death (Berger, 2005). The effects of a good death will remarkably influence the responses of those left behind.
Which brings us to the topic of survivors of spousal/significant other death. Shock, protest, disorganization and reorganization mark four of the greatest stages of surviving the loss of a loved one. Basically, a person will be upset and may even be lost in denial. They may go as far as to say, “__________ is on vacation.” But, eventually that denial subsides and they are forced to acknowledge the situation. When this happens, the person may feel very over whelmed, anxious, and confused. These feelings will pass, and then it’s generally time to get affairs in order. Maybe the individual’s prospect on life changes, for some, personal growth is experienced and they begin to focus their grief into a positive voyage.
References
Annenberg Media (2007). Discovering Psychology. Age 65+. Retrieved Feb. 1, 2007
From WGBH Educational Foundation website:
http://www.learner.org/discoveringpsychology/development/65.html
Berger, Kathleen (2005). The Developing Person through the life span (6th ed.)
New York: Worth Publications.
Young, Carley (2006) 5 Stages of Dealing with Grief and Sorrow Retrieved Feb 1 2007
From The Life Script website:
http://www.lifescript.com/channels/well_being/meditations_motivations/facing_loss.asp?
Adulthood: The Unique Developement (Written for Class)
Introduction
In this stage of life, Biological, Cognitive, and Psychosocial Development are noted as physical, educational, sexual, emotional, and personality enhancements that continue to help create new milestones. On the following pages, we shall discuss these different areas, provide examples and show how the development of a adult aged twenty to sixty progresses. By the end of this document, one should be able to provide a simple description of this process with little to no difficulty.
Biological Development
“Overview”
Biological development between the ages of twenty and sixty are enhanced by a multitude of variables, and take on a variety of characteristics. The process takes gender into consideration and is both experience-expectant and experience-reliant. Biological traits initially create the framework for the life process, but it is an individual’s dedication to health that slows the ageing process, limits potential genetic/medical issues, and adds to the quality of life that is experienced. If precautions are not taken in early adulthood, the organs will automatically begin to diminish at a rate of 1% per year (Annenberg, 2007), and continue to decline indefinitely. Let’s break this down a little more; shall we?
“General Changes of Young adulthood”
Around the age of twenty, body systems are at optimum levels matter a fact, generally people are considered to be in their physical prime. That is why this is a great time to engage in hard work, athletic activities and problem-free reproduction (Berger, 2005, Anneberg, 2007)). Young adults experience a gradual increase of physical strength, and mobility until approximately age thirty when physical functioning is said to peek after which, for most people, quality becomes the product of effort not a set factor of life. For example, an individual who maintains a healthy diet, exercises, avoids harmful agents, and seeks prompt medical attention (as needed) will have a better chance of leading a healthy life compared to an individual who lays around eating junk food, drinking or drugging, and/or ignoring the symptoms of possible ailments. It is the habits, actions, and responses in early adulthood that sets the stage for the mid-adulthood.
“General Changes of Mid-Adulthood”
Mid-adulthood’s physical development is marked by easily seen characteristics such as, the beginning of graying, thinning and/or balding hair, gradual shifts/increases of weight, increased body fat and decreased lean muscle mass (Annenberg, 2007). Its other symptoms are less visible and include the gradual degeneration of hearing and vision, the stiffening and thickening of cell membranes that can begin to limit mobility and the reduction of recovery time associated with physical stress (Berger, 2005). Obviously, the odds are stacked against the individual who continues to engage in risky behaviors. However, it should be noted that the most serious repercussions aren’t normally seen until late adulthood. Therefore, it is not to late to improve one’s health if they modify their diet, begin an exercise program, and seek medical advice on a regular basis.
“Gender Changes Between Age 20-60”
In many ways, males and females progress through life along the same path. That path however often curves on a biological level that is gender related. It seems that the most common easily distinguished area is in the sexual topics. Let’s begin with reproduction. The male and female sexuality is based on hormones. These hormones create changes in the body and the time frame of those changes is often called the biological clock. Females must be more cautious of their biological clock than do males because theirs is much much shorter. Basically it is preferred, and considered safer for females to reproduce before age 30 and definitely by age 39; where as males are preferred by age forty but can actually reproduce indefinitely unless they face other medical conditions that prevents such actions. Only 15% of couples will face the inability to reproduce and 25% of the time its because of the males inability to reproduce for reasons such as sperm/sperm count related issues. Females however may face myriad issues such as endometriosis, infections, tumors, and past deceases such as PID (Pelvic Inflammatory Disease) that can make conception impossible or even if pregnancy occurs make the baby impossible to carry.
Of course once the clock reaches runs out, Females face Menopause; men need not worry about such things. Menopause is a eliminating process, where the female body no longer produces the amount of hormones it once did and therefore no longer occurs a monthly menstrual cycle. This process strikes the female around the age of 45-58 and lasts approximately one year. Menopause can strike earlier if a female has had hysterectomy surgery, or other unique circumstances. It can produce many uncomfortable symptoms including hot flashes, cold sweats, insomnia, mood-swings, dry skin, loss of breast tissue, and vaginal dryness. Hormonal Replacement Therapy is available to patients who suffer from Menopause but the treatment poses more of a threat than the symptoms does. Patients who utilize HRT are more likely to get Alzheimer’s, senile dementia, cancer and are at a higher risk for severe blood clots (Berger, 2005).
Males are not completely without their own share of gender-based changes. Males are challenged to endure what is called “male patterned baldness” (Berger, 2005). Usually youthful males, who lose the top parts of their hair, and become unable to grow it back, suffer this. MPB is genetically linked and passed from father to son.
“Self Induced Medical Problems Of adulthood”
Many adults face self-induced health issues. Most of these situations occur in early adulthood but if left untreated can continue indefinitely or lead to fatal results.
The first self-induced trauma is drug and alcohol addiction. Young adults as coping agents to reduce stress and negative emotions more likely use addictive agents. Abuse is also higher during social functions such as parties, spectator sporting events, rock concerts, and other group activities because peer pressure is so much higher during such times. Addictive substance and crowds also lead to a serious social issue(Berger, Anneberg, 2007). Which brings us to our second self-induced trauma unplanned/unprotected sexual activities. In this day and age one occasion of unprotected sexual activity can produce not only the normal pregnancy and curable STD but it can lead to the transmission of HIV. HIV is a powerful deadly disease that is transmitted by blood, and body fluids. It affects the immune system. Since a person can go months or years and there is no known cure for HIV, it becomes a silent killer. The best way to prevent the passing of this deadly disease is to sustain from using I.V. drugs, stay away from body fluids of others, and save sexual activity until after marriage. However, IF you feel the absolute need to indulge in love making; use a condom EVERY single time. It’s your life: Only you can protect it!
Cognitive Development
Cognitive development describes the intellectual or educational side of human growth. It includes but is not limited to the thinking process, perceptual ability, and communication (Berger, 2005). Between ages twenty and sixty, a lot of cognitive skills present themselves, level out and progress. Between twenty to forty years of age, individuals find that their thinking becomes more practical. Short-term memory grows and peaks as wisdom and expertise begins to develop. Through learned experience, they begin to adapt to the inconsistent and complex issues of day-to-day life. Vocabulary and knowledge continues as they attend work, social events and engage in everyday problem solving
As the adult reaches forty-one through sixty; mid-adulthood, reaction time and mental processing begins to slow (Anneberg, 2007). Intellectual abilities depend on a use it or lose it theory. The more the person utilizes their educational skills the more apt they are to continue to carry on in the same manner as before. Basically long and short-term memory will stay intact for many years to come as long as they are utilized (Berger, 2005).
Psychosocial development
Psychosocial Development describes more intimate areas of human development. These intimate areas include the emotional character, personality, and the ability to form and maintain interpersonal relationships (Berger, 2005). Many outside influences as well as the above biological changes influence these important traits.
During young adulthood, individuals can face many chaotic issues. Some of which include issues of identity, intimacy, marriage, family maintenance, friendships, finances, and day-to-day life (Berger, 2005). It’s a lot to handle and a strong support system is the most important asset a person can hold.
Mid-Adulthood often comes with it’s own crisis. It’s during this time that many individuals face empty-nest syndrome. Their children are moving out and at first it’s hard to handle. But, after a while, things slip into a newfound comfort level and life gains unexpected happiness; especially in the area of marriage. Other issues of mid-adulthood include, insecurities about life’s accomplishments this includes job promotions, future retirement, etc. Thankfully by this time, most people have a stress elimination plan in place and are better equipped to handle change.
“Marriage, Intimacy, & Divorce”
Human beings are sexually, intimate individuals. We have not only a desire but also the actual yearning to experience intimacy. We want friendships that support us, romantic relationships that fulfill our wildest dreams and sexual encounters that leave us breathless (Berger, 2005).
In today’s society marriage isn’t as important as finding and sharing life with that special someone. (This includes Homosexual relationships) Which is probably why the non-married rates are up, the average numbers of co-habitates are up, and the average single mother rate is up, even though most cultures still hold marriage as the highest proof of commitment it’s obvious that relationship success comes from maturity, homagamy, hetrogamy, equality, love, intimacy, consistent expectations and commitment (Berger, 2005). Over all, marriage is a continual work in progress and requires frequent attention to maintain the levels of communication.
Sadly though, every now and then no matter how much one works at it,, adults are forced to deal with off the wall change. I’m not talking about finances, childbirth, or even life and death. For this section, I am going to discuss D-I-V-O-R-C-E. Now I’m sure NO-ONE goes into marriage, or at least not the average person anyway, thinking “one of these days, I’m going to get divorced!” So divorce is usually a devastating thing. People who face divorce tend to experience depression, insecurity, anxiety, and trust issues. They are probably pretty well use to intimacy, and commitment and losing this can create quite a stress on the body and mind. If the couple has children, it can open a whole new line of issues. Custody battles, continued correspondence, mixed emotions, and awkward moments can make moving on even more difficult. Again the best thing is a strong support system. People who face divorce need someone who will listen to them rant, listen to them cry, listen to their stories, and tell them their feelings are justified. One can’t always remove the anguish from the life but keeping a friend from experiencing it alone cam make a huge difference.
“How To Deal with stress”
Dealing with stress is as unique as the person who is dealing w/ the stress in the first place. However, there are many things a person (no matter their age) can do to lower stress levels; beginning with attempting to understand not only what causes you stress but how you react to stress and then making every attempt possible to eliminate those issues from your life. Some other things that help manage stress levels include learning to balance life through relaxation, exercise and work. Of course getting enough sleep and avoiding alcohol and drugs will always help maintain a healthier body. (Berger, 2005).
References
Annenberg Media (2007). Discovering Psychology. Age 20-40. Retrieved Feb. 1, 2007
From WGBH Educational Foundation website:
http://www.learner.org/discoveringpsychology/development/20-40.html
Annenberg Media (2007). Discovering Psychology. Age 41-60. Retrieved Feb. 1, 2007
From WGBH Educational Foundation website:
http://www.learner.org/discoveringpsychology/development/40_60.html
Berger, Kathleen (2005). The Developing Person through the life span (6th ed.)
New York: Worth Publications.
In this stage of life, Biological, Cognitive, and Psychosocial Development are noted as physical, educational, sexual, emotional, and personality enhancements that continue to help create new milestones. On the following pages, we shall discuss these different areas, provide examples and show how the development of a adult aged twenty to sixty progresses. By the end of this document, one should be able to provide a simple description of this process with little to no difficulty.
Biological Development
“Overview”
Biological development between the ages of twenty and sixty are enhanced by a multitude of variables, and take on a variety of characteristics. The process takes gender into consideration and is both experience-expectant and experience-reliant. Biological traits initially create the framework for the life process, but it is an individual’s dedication to health that slows the ageing process, limits potential genetic/medical issues, and adds to the quality of life that is experienced. If precautions are not taken in early adulthood, the organs will automatically begin to diminish at a rate of 1% per year (Annenberg, 2007), and continue to decline indefinitely. Let’s break this down a little more; shall we?
“General Changes of Young adulthood”
Around the age of twenty, body systems are at optimum levels matter a fact, generally people are considered to be in their physical prime. That is why this is a great time to engage in hard work, athletic activities and problem-free reproduction (Berger, 2005, Anneberg, 2007)). Young adults experience a gradual increase of physical strength, and mobility until approximately age thirty when physical functioning is said to peek after which, for most people, quality becomes the product of effort not a set factor of life. For example, an individual who maintains a healthy diet, exercises, avoids harmful agents, and seeks prompt medical attention (as needed) will have a better chance of leading a healthy life compared to an individual who lays around eating junk food, drinking or drugging, and/or ignoring the symptoms of possible ailments. It is the habits, actions, and responses in early adulthood that sets the stage for the mid-adulthood.
“General Changes of Mid-Adulthood”
Mid-adulthood’s physical development is marked by easily seen characteristics such as, the beginning of graying, thinning and/or balding hair, gradual shifts/increases of weight, increased body fat and decreased lean muscle mass (Annenberg, 2007). Its other symptoms are less visible and include the gradual degeneration of hearing and vision, the stiffening and thickening of cell membranes that can begin to limit mobility and the reduction of recovery time associated with physical stress (Berger, 2005). Obviously, the odds are stacked against the individual who continues to engage in risky behaviors. However, it should be noted that the most serious repercussions aren’t normally seen until late adulthood. Therefore, it is not to late to improve one’s health if they modify their diet, begin an exercise program, and seek medical advice on a regular basis.
“Gender Changes Between Age 20-60”
In many ways, males and females progress through life along the same path. That path however often curves on a biological level that is gender related. It seems that the most common easily distinguished area is in the sexual topics. Let’s begin with reproduction. The male and female sexuality is based on hormones. These hormones create changes in the body and the time frame of those changes is often called the biological clock. Females must be more cautious of their biological clock than do males because theirs is much much shorter. Basically it is preferred, and considered safer for females to reproduce before age 30 and definitely by age 39; where as males are preferred by age forty but can actually reproduce indefinitely unless they face other medical conditions that prevents such actions. Only 15% of couples will face the inability to reproduce and 25% of the time its because of the males inability to reproduce for reasons such as sperm/sperm count related issues. Females however may face myriad issues such as endometriosis, infections, tumors, and past deceases such as PID (Pelvic Inflammatory Disease) that can make conception impossible or even if pregnancy occurs make the baby impossible to carry.
Of course once the clock reaches runs out, Females face Menopause; men need not worry about such things. Menopause is a eliminating process, where the female body no longer produces the amount of hormones it once did and therefore no longer occurs a monthly menstrual cycle. This process strikes the female around the age of 45-58 and lasts approximately one year. Menopause can strike earlier if a female has had hysterectomy surgery, or other unique circumstances. It can produce many uncomfortable symptoms including hot flashes, cold sweats, insomnia, mood-swings, dry skin, loss of breast tissue, and vaginal dryness. Hormonal Replacement Therapy is available to patients who suffer from Menopause but the treatment poses more of a threat than the symptoms does. Patients who utilize HRT are more likely to get Alzheimer’s, senile dementia, cancer and are at a higher risk for severe blood clots (Berger, 2005).
Males are not completely without their own share of gender-based changes. Males are challenged to endure what is called “male patterned baldness” (Berger, 2005). Usually youthful males, who lose the top parts of their hair, and become unable to grow it back, suffer this. MPB is genetically linked and passed from father to son.
“Self Induced Medical Problems Of adulthood”
Many adults face self-induced health issues. Most of these situations occur in early adulthood but if left untreated can continue indefinitely or lead to fatal results.
The first self-induced trauma is drug and alcohol addiction. Young adults as coping agents to reduce stress and negative emotions more likely use addictive agents. Abuse is also higher during social functions such as parties, spectator sporting events, rock concerts, and other group activities because peer pressure is so much higher during such times. Addictive substance and crowds also lead to a serious social issue(Berger, Anneberg, 2007). Which brings us to our second self-induced trauma unplanned/unprotected sexual activities. In this day and age one occasion of unprotected sexual activity can produce not only the normal pregnancy and curable STD but it can lead to the transmission of HIV. HIV is a powerful deadly disease that is transmitted by blood, and body fluids. It affects the immune system. Since a person can go months or years and there is no known cure for HIV, it becomes a silent killer. The best way to prevent the passing of this deadly disease is to sustain from using I.V. drugs, stay away from body fluids of others, and save sexual activity until after marriage. However, IF you feel the absolute need to indulge in love making; use a condom EVERY single time. It’s your life: Only you can protect it!
Cognitive Development
Cognitive development describes the intellectual or educational side of human growth. It includes but is not limited to the thinking process, perceptual ability, and communication (Berger, 2005). Between ages twenty and sixty, a lot of cognitive skills present themselves, level out and progress. Between twenty to forty years of age, individuals find that their thinking becomes more practical. Short-term memory grows and peaks as wisdom and expertise begins to develop. Through learned experience, they begin to adapt to the inconsistent and complex issues of day-to-day life. Vocabulary and knowledge continues as they attend work, social events and engage in everyday problem solving
As the adult reaches forty-one through sixty; mid-adulthood, reaction time and mental processing begins to slow (Anneberg, 2007). Intellectual abilities depend on a use it or lose it theory. The more the person utilizes their educational skills the more apt they are to continue to carry on in the same manner as before. Basically long and short-term memory will stay intact for many years to come as long as they are utilized (Berger, 2005).
Psychosocial development
Psychosocial Development describes more intimate areas of human development. These intimate areas include the emotional character, personality, and the ability to form and maintain interpersonal relationships (Berger, 2005). Many outside influences as well as the above biological changes influence these important traits.
During young adulthood, individuals can face many chaotic issues. Some of which include issues of identity, intimacy, marriage, family maintenance, friendships, finances, and day-to-day life (Berger, 2005). It’s a lot to handle and a strong support system is the most important asset a person can hold.
Mid-Adulthood often comes with it’s own crisis. It’s during this time that many individuals face empty-nest syndrome. Their children are moving out and at first it’s hard to handle. But, after a while, things slip into a newfound comfort level and life gains unexpected happiness; especially in the area of marriage. Other issues of mid-adulthood include, insecurities about life’s accomplishments this includes job promotions, future retirement, etc. Thankfully by this time, most people have a stress elimination plan in place and are better equipped to handle change.
“Marriage, Intimacy, & Divorce”
Human beings are sexually, intimate individuals. We have not only a desire but also the actual yearning to experience intimacy. We want friendships that support us, romantic relationships that fulfill our wildest dreams and sexual encounters that leave us breathless (Berger, 2005).
In today’s society marriage isn’t as important as finding and sharing life with that special someone. (This includes Homosexual relationships) Which is probably why the non-married rates are up, the average numbers of co-habitates are up, and the average single mother rate is up, even though most cultures still hold marriage as the highest proof of commitment it’s obvious that relationship success comes from maturity, homagamy, hetrogamy, equality, love, intimacy, consistent expectations and commitment (Berger, 2005). Over all, marriage is a continual work in progress and requires frequent attention to maintain the levels of communication.
Sadly though, every now and then no matter how much one works at it,, adults are forced to deal with off the wall change. I’m not talking about finances, childbirth, or even life and death. For this section, I am going to discuss D-I-V-O-R-C-E. Now I’m sure NO-ONE goes into marriage, or at least not the average person anyway, thinking “one of these days, I’m going to get divorced!” So divorce is usually a devastating thing. People who face divorce tend to experience depression, insecurity, anxiety, and trust issues. They are probably pretty well use to intimacy, and commitment and losing this can create quite a stress on the body and mind. If the couple has children, it can open a whole new line of issues. Custody battles, continued correspondence, mixed emotions, and awkward moments can make moving on even more difficult. Again the best thing is a strong support system. People who face divorce need someone who will listen to them rant, listen to them cry, listen to their stories, and tell them their feelings are justified. One can’t always remove the anguish from the life but keeping a friend from experiencing it alone cam make a huge difference.
“How To Deal with stress”
Dealing with stress is as unique as the person who is dealing w/ the stress in the first place. However, there are many things a person (no matter their age) can do to lower stress levels; beginning with attempting to understand not only what causes you stress but how you react to stress and then making every attempt possible to eliminate those issues from your life. Some other things that help manage stress levels include learning to balance life through relaxation, exercise and work. Of course getting enough sleep and avoiding alcohol and drugs will always help maintain a healthier body. (Berger, 2005).
References
Annenberg Media (2007). Discovering Psychology. Age 20-40. Retrieved Feb. 1, 2007
From WGBH Educational Foundation website:
http://www.learner.org/discoveringpsychology/development/20-40.html
Annenberg Media (2007). Discovering Psychology. Age 41-60. Retrieved Feb. 1, 2007
From WGBH Educational Foundation website:
http://www.learner.org/discoveringpsychology/development/40_60.html
Berger, Kathleen (2005). The Developing Person through the life span (6th ed.)
New York: Worth Publications.
The Temp. Insanity Of Adolescence (Written for Class)
Introduction
During adolescence, as children morph from childhood to adulthood, change takes place through a process called puberty. Puberty begins around the age of eight to twelve and is triggered by hormonal changes but is not a process that concludes over night. The onset of puberty arrives under unique circumstances. It is influenced by a variety of different variables and its physical side is generally more visible than it’s cognitive or psychosocial side. Despite popular belief, the finalization of puberty can surpass the teen years completely and terminate well into the twenties. (Annenberg, 2007)
In this stage of life, Biological, Cognitive, and Psychosocial Development are noted as physical, educational, sexual, emotional, and personality enhancements that continue to help create new milestones. On the following pages, we shall discuss these different areas, provide examples and show how the development of a child/adolescent aged eight through nineteen progresses. By the end of this document, one should be able to provide a simple description of this process with little to no difficulty.
Biological Development
Biological Development involves changes that are physical in nature. Through the adolescence years, these changes include internal as well as external body changes and are stimulated by hormonal development. These changes take place approximately two years’ earlier in females than they do in males. Therefore, since this stage of development is gender specific, we shall separate the two making it easier to explain.
In General, with girls, the onset of puberty begins around the age of eight to twelve. Where as with boys, there is a two-year delay that sets puberty at approximately age twelve to fourteen. During this time, a girl’s ovaries begin to produce eight times more estrogen than ever before. A boy’s testis generates eighteen times more testosterone than ever before. (Annenberg, 2007) This rise in estrogen and testosterone causes the body to under go transformations such as increased height, weight, and musculature change. Pubic, under-arm and leg hair begin to blossom (Lewis, 2007). With girls, hips begin to spread, and breasts begin to develop. With boys, voices deepen and ejaculation becomes possible. (Annenberg, 2007) This process seems to lead girls to menstruation around age thirteen and full facial hair for males around age 18 as their physical adulthood begins. It should be noted however, that menstruation can begin at any time during puberty and it is not abnormal for a young lady to begin earlier or later than her peers.
Over all, Boys and girls of all ages can experience a variety of issues that can delay and or speed the maturity process. Some biological variations include, but are not limited to, things such as stress, body mass, and disorders such as anorexia. Stress can cause many changes in the body. It can slow down the creation of hormonal substances or speed the process. Stress and/or anorexia can cause delay menstruation, cause irregular bleeding, or temporarily end the process all-together. Body mass comes into consideration because most girls begin to enter puberty around the time they reach one hundred pounds. Heavier girls tend to reach puberty faster than thinner girls and the more actively involved in heavy sports a girl is will also contribute to the arrival of hormonal change. Despite the delayed possibilities, most adolescents reach puberty in average times. Generally, girls will reach physical adulthood by age sixteen and males by eighteen.
Cognitive Development
Cognitive development describes the intellectual or educational side of human growth. It includes but is not limited to the thinking process, perceptual ability, and communication. During age ten to twelve logical thought processes become abstract thinking, planning and memory skills improve, the long-term memory strengthens, and language skills develop into more complex and concrete forms of verbal communication. By age fifteen, (Annenberg, 2007) an adolescent’s formal operational reasoning takes hold and the capacity for the abstract and scientific thought process emerges. (Health, 2006) Basically, they become capable of thinking in a new critical, self-conscious ways. However, it is around this age that sarcasm may seem to slip into the picture as the child begins to grasp new concepts and becomes less sincere in their choice of words. This lasts a relatively short time, considering that by age sixteen to nineteen (Annenberg, 2007), coping skills develop substance as they learn to integrate rules and consequences into their decision making, and adolescents become able to better manage their problems and situations on a day to day bases. (Health, 2006) Basically, this is saying that the character of the youth becomes that of an adult and their intellectual skills mirror such improvements.
Psychosocial development
Psychosocial Development describes more intimate areas of human development. These intimate areas include the emotional character, personality, and the ability to form and maintain interpersonal relationships. Many outside influences as well as the above biological changes influence these important traits during adolescents.
Between the ages of ten and twelve, things begin to become complicated for the child. Not only is he or she facing their ever changing bodies, raging hormones, other normal day to day challenges, they begin to notice other things as well. Peers begin to split onto cliques, stereotypes, and prejudice seems to become more obvious, and a new sexual awakening challenges their sense of morals, and values (Lewis, 2007). These drastic changes can play an important role in the way a child portrays his or her self. Matter a fact; this can be the beginning of an emotional roller coaster for both the child and his or her parents.
Over all, a strong support system can make an extreme difference in an adolescent’s life. If a strong system is in place, it is more likely that a thirteen to fifteen year old teenager will feel more comfortable asking advice, thus creating a stronger self-esteem and enabling the individual to make more responsible choices. (A proper support system will assure the teen is educated in all areas of potential issues, along with support the ones at hand) (Cleveland, 2006). When a child maintains this type of relationship with at least one adult, they gain self-confidence, and are more likely to separate themselves from conflict, invest in healthy friendships, value education, hold on to their virtue, and decline offers of potentially harmful substances. Not to mention, the more positive the adolescent experience is for the teen, the more positive it will be for the parent and society as a whole.
Ok, So, Not all adolescent aged individuals can cruse through life without chaotic moments and although parental involvement plays a huge role in adolescent success it’s not the only element that influences behavior. Matter a fact; many responsible parents have faced heartache when their child has made bad choices, as well as, negligent and/or abusive parents who managed to gain responsible offspring with little to no guidance at all. This is where other variables come into play. Biological, sociological, or psychological dysfunctions, and peer pressure enhance the chances of adolescent productivity and negativity (Annenberg, 2007).
Hormonal changes can create issues such as depression, anxiety, eating disorders, etc. These issues (among others) can lead to such actions as alcohol and drug abuse, suicide attempts, eating disorders, and other deviant behaviors. Teens in these predicaments are also more likely to engage in unprotected adolescent sexual encounters than those who maintain strong support systems and healthy self-images. (Which of course is a matter of life and death) These effects are multiplied when a teen also faces societal issues such as publicly humiliating situations including being subjected to bullying or hazing, peer pressure, and the lack of a healthy support system. Children who face these situations tend to seek attention from unhealthy sources and need immediate intervention. Common signs these situations are, lack of conversation, decreased activities, shakiness, obviously weight gain or loss, lack of appetite, over eating, pupil dilation, and unexplainable marks (among others). (Cleveland, 2006) Parents should pre-educate themselves and at the first sight of these signs provide a comfortable setting for one on one conversation between parent and child and if necessary seek professional advice from a qualified therapist to ensure the safety of the situation.
Conclusion
The Adolescent era has a lot of incoming and out going obstacles. Each individual child has a unique personality and should be treated as such. Parental support continues to play an important role but is not the only influence. Changing bodies, raging hormones, societal changes, and peer pressure provide obstacles that may lead to deviant if not dangerous or even fatal results if not closely monitored and support granted on an as needed basis. Positive feedback is always helpful and provides guidance in ways that nothing else can. Over coddling is not necessary. Basically, since this is a time of learning and mistakes; unconditional love, guidance, and support are key elements for success. Remember, we were all kids at one time and we all made mistakes. We all sought individuality. We all deemed ourselves invincible. We all learned that most mistakes are small enough, easily forgotten, and fixable. We may live in a different age, but, even body piercing can be removed; hair re-grown or dyed, and above all adolescent’s conquered if our teens are shown the way. Again, The insanity of adolescence is only temporary with limited to no adverse effects.. When it’s over, our children will beat the odds and become mature adults. After all, WE DID!
References
Annenberg Media (2007). Discovering Psychology. Age 10-12. Retrieved Jan. 25, 2007
From WGBH Educational Foundation website:
http://www.learner.org/discoveringpsychology/development/10_12.html
Annenberg Media (2007). Discovering Psychology. Age 13-15. Retrieved Jan. 25, 2007
From WGBH Educational Foundation website:
http://www.learner.org/discoveringpsychology/development/13_15.html
Annenberg Media (2007). Discovering Psychology. Age 16-19. Retrieved Jan. 25, 2007
From WGBH Educational Foundation website:
http://www.learner.org/discoveringpsychology/development/16_19.html
Cleveland Clinic, The. (2006) Social Development During the Teen Years.
Retrieved Jan 24, 2007 From: The Cleveland Clinic Information Center Website:
http://www.clevelandclinic.org/health/health-i info/docs/2700/2707.asp?index=9983
Health topic contract (2006). Adolescent Medicine; Adolescent development.
Retrieved Jan. 28, 2007 From University of Virginia Health Systems website:
http://www.healthsystem.virginia.edu/UVaHealth/peds_adolescent/cogdev.cfm
Lewis, Joe (2007). The Physiological and Psychological Development of the Adolescent.
Retrieved Jan 26, 2007. From Yale-New Haven Teachers Institute website:
http://www.yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1991/5/91.05.07.x.html#b
During adolescence, as children morph from childhood to adulthood, change takes place through a process called puberty. Puberty begins around the age of eight to twelve and is triggered by hormonal changes but is not a process that concludes over night. The onset of puberty arrives under unique circumstances. It is influenced by a variety of different variables and its physical side is generally more visible than it’s cognitive or psychosocial side. Despite popular belief, the finalization of puberty can surpass the teen years completely and terminate well into the twenties. (Annenberg, 2007)
In this stage of life, Biological, Cognitive, and Psychosocial Development are noted as physical, educational, sexual, emotional, and personality enhancements that continue to help create new milestones. On the following pages, we shall discuss these different areas, provide examples and show how the development of a child/adolescent aged eight through nineteen progresses. By the end of this document, one should be able to provide a simple description of this process with little to no difficulty.
Biological Development
Biological Development involves changes that are physical in nature. Through the adolescence years, these changes include internal as well as external body changes and are stimulated by hormonal development. These changes take place approximately two years’ earlier in females than they do in males. Therefore, since this stage of development is gender specific, we shall separate the two making it easier to explain.
In General, with girls, the onset of puberty begins around the age of eight to twelve. Where as with boys, there is a two-year delay that sets puberty at approximately age twelve to fourteen. During this time, a girl’s ovaries begin to produce eight times more estrogen than ever before. A boy’s testis generates eighteen times more testosterone than ever before. (Annenberg, 2007) This rise in estrogen and testosterone causes the body to under go transformations such as increased height, weight, and musculature change. Pubic, under-arm and leg hair begin to blossom (Lewis, 2007). With girls, hips begin to spread, and breasts begin to develop. With boys, voices deepen and ejaculation becomes possible. (Annenberg, 2007) This process seems to lead girls to menstruation around age thirteen and full facial hair for males around age 18 as their physical adulthood begins. It should be noted however, that menstruation can begin at any time during puberty and it is not abnormal for a young lady to begin earlier or later than her peers.
Over all, Boys and girls of all ages can experience a variety of issues that can delay and or speed the maturity process. Some biological variations include, but are not limited to, things such as stress, body mass, and disorders such as anorexia. Stress can cause many changes in the body. It can slow down the creation of hormonal substances or speed the process. Stress and/or anorexia can cause delay menstruation, cause irregular bleeding, or temporarily end the process all-together. Body mass comes into consideration because most girls begin to enter puberty around the time they reach one hundred pounds. Heavier girls tend to reach puberty faster than thinner girls and the more actively involved in heavy sports a girl is will also contribute to the arrival of hormonal change. Despite the delayed possibilities, most adolescents reach puberty in average times. Generally, girls will reach physical adulthood by age sixteen and males by eighteen.
Cognitive Development
Cognitive development describes the intellectual or educational side of human growth. It includes but is not limited to the thinking process, perceptual ability, and communication. During age ten to twelve logical thought processes become abstract thinking, planning and memory skills improve, the long-term memory strengthens, and language skills develop into more complex and concrete forms of verbal communication. By age fifteen, (Annenberg, 2007) an adolescent’s formal operational reasoning takes hold and the capacity for the abstract and scientific thought process emerges. (Health, 2006) Basically, they become capable of thinking in a new critical, self-conscious ways. However, it is around this age that sarcasm may seem to slip into the picture as the child begins to grasp new concepts and becomes less sincere in their choice of words. This lasts a relatively short time, considering that by age sixteen to nineteen (Annenberg, 2007), coping skills develop substance as they learn to integrate rules and consequences into their decision making, and adolescents become able to better manage their problems and situations on a day to day bases. (Health, 2006) Basically, this is saying that the character of the youth becomes that of an adult and their intellectual skills mirror such improvements.
Psychosocial development
Psychosocial Development describes more intimate areas of human development. These intimate areas include the emotional character, personality, and the ability to form and maintain interpersonal relationships. Many outside influences as well as the above biological changes influence these important traits during adolescents.
Between the ages of ten and twelve, things begin to become complicated for the child. Not only is he or she facing their ever changing bodies, raging hormones, other normal day to day challenges, they begin to notice other things as well. Peers begin to split onto cliques, stereotypes, and prejudice seems to become more obvious, and a new sexual awakening challenges their sense of morals, and values (Lewis, 2007). These drastic changes can play an important role in the way a child portrays his or her self. Matter a fact; this can be the beginning of an emotional roller coaster for both the child and his or her parents.
Over all, a strong support system can make an extreme difference in an adolescent’s life. If a strong system is in place, it is more likely that a thirteen to fifteen year old teenager will feel more comfortable asking advice, thus creating a stronger self-esteem and enabling the individual to make more responsible choices. (A proper support system will assure the teen is educated in all areas of potential issues, along with support the ones at hand) (Cleveland, 2006). When a child maintains this type of relationship with at least one adult, they gain self-confidence, and are more likely to separate themselves from conflict, invest in healthy friendships, value education, hold on to their virtue, and decline offers of potentially harmful substances. Not to mention, the more positive the adolescent experience is for the teen, the more positive it will be for the parent and society as a whole.
Ok, So, Not all adolescent aged individuals can cruse through life without chaotic moments and although parental involvement plays a huge role in adolescent success it’s not the only element that influences behavior. Matter a fact; many responsible parents have faced heartache when their child has made bad choices, as well as, negligent and/or abusive parents who managed to gain responsible offspring with little to no guidance at all. This is where other variables come into play. Biological, sociological, or psychological dysfunctions, and peer pressure enhance the chances of adolescent productivity and negativity (Annenberg, 2007).
Hormonal changes can create issues such as depression, anxiety, eating disorders, etc. These issues (among others) can lead to such actions as alcohol and drug abuse, suicide attempts, eating disorders, and other deviant behaviors. Teens in these predicaments are also more likely to engage in unprotected adolescent sexual encounters than those who maintain strong support systems and healthy self-images. (Which of course is a matter of life and death) These effects are multiplied when a teen also faces societal issues such as publicly humiliating situations including being subjected to bullying or hazing, peer pressure, and the lack of a healthy support system. Children who face these situations tend to seek attention from unhealthy sources and need immediate intervention. Common signs these situations are, lack of conversation, decreased activities, shakiness, obviously weight gain or loss, lack of appetite, over eating, pupil dilation, and unexplainable marks (among others). (Cleveland, 2006) Parents should pre-educate themselves and at the first sight of these signs provide a comfortable setting for one on one conversation between parent and child and if necessary seek professional advice from a qualified therapist to ensure the safety of the situation.
Conclusion
The Adolescent era has a lot of incoming and out going obstacles. Each individual child has a unique personality and should be treated as such. Parental support continues to play an important role but is not the only influence. Changing bodies, raging hormones, societal changes, and peer pressure provide obstacles that may lead to deviant if not dangerous or even fatal results if not closely monitored and support granted on an as needed basis. Positive feedback is always helpful and provides guidance in ways that nothing else can. Over coddling is not necessary. Basically, since this is a time of learning and mistakes; unconditional love, guidance, and support are key elements for success. Remember, we were all kids at one time and we all made mistakes. We all sought individuality. We all deemed ourselves invincible. We all learned that most mistakes are small enough, easily forgotten, and fixable. We may live in a different age, but, even body piercing can be removed; hair re-grown or dyed, and above all adolescent’s conquered if our teens are shown the way. Again, The insanity of adolescence is only temporary with limited to no adverse effects.. When it’s over, our children will beat the odds and become mature adults. After all, WE DID!
References
Annenberg Media (2007). Discovering Psychology. Age 10-12. Retrieved Jan. 25, 2007
From WGBH Educational Foundation website:
http://www.learner.org/discoveringpsychology/development/10_12.html
Annenberg Media (2007). Discovering Psychology. Age 13-15. Retrieved Jan. 25, 2007
From WGBH Educational Foundation website:
http://www.learner.org/discoveringpsychology/development/13_15.html
Annenberg Media (2007). Discovering Psychology. Age 16-19. Retrieved Jan. 25, 2007
From WGBH Educational Foundation website:
http://www.learner.org/discoveringpsychology/development/16_19.html
Cleveland Clinic, The. (2006) Social Development During the Teen Years.
Retrieved Jan 24, 2007 From: The Cleveland Clinic Information Center Website:
http://www.clevelandclinic.org/health/health-i info/docs/2700/2707.asp?index=9983
Health topic contract (2006). Adolescent Medicine; Adolescent development.
Retrieved Jan. 28, 2007 From University of Virginia Health Systems website:
http://www.healthsystem.virginia.edu/UVaHealth/peds_adolescent/cogdev.cfm
Lewis, Joe (2007). The Physiological and Psychological Development of the Adolescent.
Retrieved Jan 26, 2007. From Yale-New Haven Teachers Institute website:
http://www.yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1991/5/91.05.07.x.html#b
New Formations In Developement (Written for Class)
Introduction
As children leave their infant years and move ahead into the early childhood, better known as “the play years”, they again change on every possible level. Biological, Cognitive, and Psychosocial Development are noted as physical, educational, emotional, and personality enhancements that help create new milestones. On the following pages, we shall discuss these different areas, provide examples and show how the development of a child aged two through six progresses. By the end of this document, one should be able to provide a simple description of this process with little to no difficulty.
Biological Development
Biological development covers the changes within a child that are physical in nature. These involve areas such as brain development, and physical traits. Obviously these miniatures, pre-adult, human beings have only just begun to take on a more adult form, and yet their brain will reach 90% of its full futuristic size by the time the child reaches age two (Annenberg, 2007). This, in it’s self, seems almost impossible to believe, as one considers the fact that an average child only gains about three inches and four pounds per year during this time frame. It’s also interesting to note that during this extreme growth sprit, the brain goes through a process called myelination; this process is signified by axons and dendrites becoming insulated with an outside layer called myelin. For the record, myelin is an oily material that speeds the transmission of nerve impulses from neurons to neurons in the brain (Annenberg, 2007). This process does not carry a specific time frame, and may vary depending on the area of the brain in which it happens. These variations determine when the child will be ready to advance in their individual activities. Some of these activities include, but are not limited to, the development of athletic skills, which include actions such as running, jumping, & hopping; along with, the development of fine motor skills such as penmanship and drawing (Annenberg, 2007). These milestones will continue to strengthen as the child continues to grow so long as the child does not face limiting circumstances that would halt the growth of his or her development.
Cognitive Development
Cognitive development describes the intellectual or educational side of human growth. It includes but is not limited to the thinking process, perceptual ability, and communication. It’s actually during early childhood Metacognition, which is the ability to rationalize ones thoughts, forms and allows a child to begin to shape their own opinions of the world around them (Annenberg, 2007). However, it should be noted that it’s not unusual for these thoughts to be completely illogical in nature. To substantiate this statement let’s look at Jean Piaget (1896-1980), the Swiss psychologist, who divided childhood schemas into groups. He said that a child between the age of two and seven resides in the “preoperational” stage (Wikipedia, 2007), which is the second of four stages of cognitive development, the trademark of which is sparse and irrational mental operations. According to him, symbolic functioning, centration, intuitive thought, and egocentrism all represent this stage of cognitive development. Basically, this means symbols and words mean things that aren’t physically available to initiate the thought process, that children see only one side of the situation they are involved in, that they believe in the unseen without any reason at all, that they are incapable of understanding another’s point of view, and that children are unable to distinguish when an object has changed form but has not changed mass (weight). To me, this theory seems to only focus primarily on the negatives of this age when further research shows that on a scholastic level, a child will begin to use mental representations of symbols, such as numbers and words but by age six should have an approximate vocabulary of 14,000 words (Annenberg, 2007). As a mother I know that children this age begin to draw simple images, and cut along dotted lines as well (Jaeckel, 2001). Not to mention, they form new abilities, which allow the child to alter communication styles to meet the expectations of his or her surroundings (Annenberg, 2007). Obviously, the young child has along road ahead but then again, they have already mastered a great deal as well.
Psychosocial development
Psychosocial Development describes more intimate areas of human development. These intimate areas include a child’s emotional character, their personality, and ability to form and maintain interpersonal relationships. These important traits are influenced by parental styles (Annenberg, 2007); this also includes the influences of other promenade individuals such as grandparents, teachers, and etc. This stage begins a deeper need for extended adult supervision as children do not always have the ability to rationalize the consequences of their actions.
Adult supervision should include increased praise and unconditional love. It’s important that adults try to keep an 8:1 positive comment ratio (Funk, 2007). In other words, for every negative thing an adult must say to a child, there should be eight positive ones that follow. Indeed, this isn’t always an easy task and as humans we don’t always remember to count but if adults attempt to provide this support, a child’s self esteem and image will be enhanced and their confidence will strengthen allowing them to confidently embark on newer activities w/ less difficulty (Funk, 2007).
Discipline plays a key role in psychosocial development. A sharp, consistently maintained set of rules and consequences will help to eliminate years of painful backlash, and arguments for a child’s caregiver. All caregivers should maintain these limitations because the more a child’s support system works together the better the system would work as a whole for the child (Funk, 2007)
According to Diana Baumrind’s, 1966, (Grobman, 2003) description of three parenting styles, Parenting influences a child’s behaviors and ability to function. She states that a parent, who possesses a “Permissive” parenting style, acts with acceptance and affirmation, routinely explains rules, and makes fewer demands; while allowing the child to chose for itself what road to follow. This parenting style is more apt to use manipulation and reason than adverse consequences to discourage unwanted behaviors. Diana states that the second type of parenting is noted as the “Authoritarian” parenting style, in which the parent attempts to, not only control all aspects of a child’s decisions but also seeks to hold absolute power in all areas. The child is seen more as an extension of thy self rather than an individual being and therefore the parent attempts to keep the child in its place. This restricts the child’s ability to make decisions based on will without punitive consequences should they defy the parent’s expectations. Last but not least, Diana asserts that there is an “Authoritative” parenting style. With this style the parent not only shares the reasons for their decisions, but takes the child’s feelings into consideration as they make those decisions as well. This provides the possibility of an open give and take relationship, where a child has the ability to grow and experience w/out fear of rejection. Obviously each of the above parenting styles has distinctive results. We will not embark on those results except to say that “Authoritative” parenting seems to be the favored approach because it supposedly creates happy, self-confident, well-developed children. However, It’s my opinion that parents must decide which is the best road for their individual child and each parent will be influenced by their own childhood and the relationships they shared with their parents along with their own experience as the years go by. Children defy the odds of psychological opinions on a daily bases, and history shows that even the most controlling or lenient parent can produce a well-adjusted child. Over all, adult mentoring makes an extreme difference in a child’s emotional and psychological development. The investments of today will contribute to the child’s personal, and professional relationships of tomorrow (Funk, 2007).
Conclusion
As you can see, between the ages of two and six, a child has a lot going on. Their bodies are growing, their physical appearance is changing, and their brain is working behind the scene to create changes in ways that are unique. They learn new skills by watching others, and engaging in several forms of spontaneous play. The actions of adult role models will assist in the learning experience on an psychological, Sociological, and Emotional level because children of this age not only enjoy the attention of others around them; they also enjoy knowing that others are proud of them and their accomplishments. In conclusion, children will learn to understand the world around them while learning to become independent so long as they receive the support they need.
References
Annenberg Media (2007). Discovering Psychology. Retrieved Jan. 20, 2007
From WGBH Educational Foundation website:
http://www.learner.org/discoveringpsychology/development/2_6.html
Funk, John. M.A. (2007) Help Fix that Child. Retrieved Jan 20, 2007
From the Early Childhood News Website:
http://www.earlychildhoodnews.com/earlychildhood/article_view.aspx?ArticleID=469
Grobman, K.H. (2003). Diana Baumrind’s (1966) Rototypical Descriptions of 3 Parenting Styles. Retrieved Jan 21, 2007.
From Developmental Psychology. Org:
http://www.devpsy.org/teaching/parent/baumrind_styles.html
Jaeckel, Jennifer. (2001) Chapter 6 Outline. Retrieved Jan 20., 2007.
From the University Of Michigan Psychology Course Website:
http://www.umich.edu/~psycours/350/jaeckelj/3outline6.html
Wikimedia. (2007). Theory of Cognitive Development Retrieved Jan. 21, 2007
From Wikimedia Free Encyclopedia website:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_cognitive_development
As children leave their infant years and move ahead into the early childhood, better known as “the play years”, they again change on every possible level. Biological, Cognitive, and Psychosocial Development are noted as physical, educational, emotional, and personality enhancements that help create new milestones. On the following pages, we shall discuss these different areas, provide examples and show how the development of a child aged two through six progresses. By the end of this document, one should be able to provide a simple description of this process with little to no difficulty.
Biological Development
Biological development covers the changes within a child that are physical in nature. These involve areas such as brain development, and physical traits. Obviously these miniatures, pre-adult, human beings have only just begun to take on a more adult form, and yet their brain will reach 90% of its full futuristic size by the time the child reaches age two (Annenberg, 2007). This, in it’s self, seems almost impossible to believe, as one considers the fact that an average child only gains about three inches and four pounds per year during this time frame. It’s also interesting to note that during this extreme growth sprit, the brain goes through a process called myelination; this process is signified by axons and dendrites becoming insulated with an outside layer called myelin. For the record, myelin is an oily material that speeds the transmission of nerve impulses from neurons to neurons in the brain (Annenberg, 2007). This process does not carry a specific time frame, and may vary depending on the area of the brain in which it happens. These variations determine when the child will be ready to advance in their individual activities. Some of these activities include, but are not limited to, the development of athletic skills, which include actions such as running, jumping, & hopping; along with, the development of fine motor skills such as penmanship and drawing (Annenberg, 2007). These milestones will continue to strengthen as the child continues to grow so long as the child does not face limiting circumstances that would halt the growth of his or her development.
Cognitive Development
Cognitive development describes the intellectual or educational side of human growth. It includes but is not limited to the thinking process, perceptual ability, and communication. It’s actually during early childhood Metacognition, which is the ability to rationalize ones thoughts, forms and allows a child to begin to shape their own opinions of the world around them (Annenberg, 2007). However, it should be noted that it’s not unusual for these thoughts to be completely illogical in nature. To substantiate this statement let’s look at Jean Piaget (1896-1980), the Swiss psychologist, who divided childhood schemas into groups. He said that a child between the age of two and seven resides in the “preoperational” stage (Wikipedia, 2007), which is the second of four stages of cognitive development, the trademark of which is sparse and irrational mental operations. According to him, symbolic functioning, centration, intuitive thought, and egocentrism all represent this stage of cognitive development. Basically, this means symbols and words mean things that aren’t physically available to initiate the thought process, that children see only one side of the situation they are involved in, that they believe in the unseen without any reason at all, that they are incapable of understanding another’s point of view, and that children are unable to distinguish when an object has changed form but has not changed mass (weight). To me, this theory seems to only focus primarily on the negatives of this age when further research shows that on a scholastic level, a child will begin to use mental representations of symbols, such as numbers and words but by age six should have an approximate vocabulary of 14,000 words (Annenberg, 2007). As a mother I know that children this age begin to draw simple images, and cut along dotted lines as well (Jaeckel, 2001). Not to mention, they form new abilities, which allow the child to alter communication styles to meet the expectations of his or her surroundings (Annenberg, 2007). Obviously, the young child has along road ahead but then again, they have already mastered a great deal as well.
Psychosocial development
Psychosocial Development describes more intimate areas of human development. These intimate areas include a child’s emotional character, their personality, and ability to form and maintain interpersonal relationships. These important traits are influenced by parental styles (Annenberg, 2007); this also includes the influences of other promenade individuals such as grandparents, teachers, and etc. This stage begins a deeper need for extended adult supervision as children do not always have the ability to rationalize the consequences of their actions.
Adult supervision should include increased praise and unconditional love. It’s important that adults try to keep an 8:1 positive comment ratio (Funk, 2007). In other words, for every negative thing an adult must say to a child, there should be eight positive ones that follow. Indeed, this isn’t always an easy task and as humans we don’t always remember to count but if adults attempt to provide this support, a child’s self esteem and image will be enhanced and their confidence will strengthen allowing them to confidently embark on newer activities w/ less difficulty (Funk, 2007).
Discipline plays a key role in psychosocial development. A sharp, consistently maintained set of rules and consequences will help to eliminate years of painful backlash, and arguments for a child’s caregiver. All caregivers should maintain these limitations because the more a child’s support system works together the better the system would work as a whole for the child (Funk, 2007)
According to Diana Baumrind’s, 1966, (Grobman, 2003) description of three parenting styles, Parenting influences a child’s behaviors and ability to function. She states that a parent, who possesses a “Permissive” parenting style, acts with acceptance and affirmation, routinely explains rules, and makes fewer demands; while allowing the child to chose for itself what road to follow. This parenting style is more apt to use manipulation and reason than adverse consequences to discourage unwanted behaviors. Diana states that the second type of parenting is noted as the “Authoritarian” parenting style, in which the parent attempts to, not only control all aspects of a child’s decisions but also seeks to hold absolute power in all areas. The child is seen more as an extension of thy self rather than an individual being and therefore the parent attempts to keep the child in its place. This restricts the child’s ability to make decisions based on will without punitive consequences should they defy the parent’s expectations. Last but not least, Diana asserts that there is an “Authoritative” parenting style. With this style the parent not only shares the reasons for their decisions, but takes the child’s feelings into consideration as they make those decisions as well. This provides the possibility of an open give and take relationship, where a child has the ability to grow and experience w/out fear of rejection. Obviously each of the above parenting styles has distinctive results. We will not embark on those results except to say that “Authoritative” parenting seems to be the favored approach because it supposedly creates happy, self-confident, well-developed children. However, It’s my opinion that parents must decide which is the best road for their individual child and each parent will be influenced by their own childhood and the relationships they shared with their parents along with their own experience as the years go by. Children defy the odds of psychological opinions on a daily bases, and history shows that even the most controlling or lenient parent can produce a well-adjusted child. Over all, adult mentoring makes an extreme difference in a child’s emotional and psychological development. The investments of today will contribute to the child’s personal, and professional relationships of tomorrow (Funk, 2007).
Conclusion
As you can see, between the ages of two and six, a child has a lot going on. Their bodies are growing, their physical appearance is changing, and their brain is working behind the scene to create changes in ways that are unique. They learn new skills by watching others, and engaging in several forms of spontaneous play. The actions of adult role models will assist in the learning experience on an psychological, Sociological, and Emotional level because children of this age not only enjoy the attention of others around them; they also enjoy knowing that others are proud of them and their accomplishments. In conclusion, children will learn to understand the world around them while learning to become independent so long as they receive the support they need.
References
Annenberg Media (2007). Discovering Psychology. Retrieved Jan. 20, 2007
From WGBH Educational Foundation website:
http://www.learner.org/discoveringpsychology/development/2_6.html
Funk, John. M.A. (2007) Help Fix that Child. Retrieved Jan 20, 2007
From the Early Childhood News Website:
http://www.earlychildhoodnews.com/earlychildhood/article_view.aspx?ArticleID=469
Grobman, K.H. (2003). Diana Baumrind’s (1966) Rototypical Descriptions of 3 Parenting Styles. Retrieved Jan 21, 2007.
From Developmental Psychology. Org:
http://www.devpsy.org/teaching/parent/baumrind_styles.html
Jaeckel, Jennifer. (2001) Chapter 6 Outline. Retrieved Jan 20., 2007.
From the University Of Michigan Psychology Course Website:
http://www.umich.edu/~psycours/350/jaeckelj/3outline6.html
Wikimedia. (2007). Theory of Cognitive Development Retrieved Jan. 21, 2007
From Wikimedia Free Encyclopedia website:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_cognitive_development
The Miniture Human (This was an assignment for Class)
Introduction
Around the world men and women embark on the wonderful experience of pregnancy. What does this mean? Well to most of us, it means the formation of a tiny new life but what goes on behind the scenes? How does a baby become a baby? What is the process of biological, cognitive, and psychosocial development when speaking about such microscopic treasures? How does this transfer as birth takes place and the tiny human miniature faces the next two years? On the following pages, we shall discuss these different areas, provide examples and show how the development of a baby as it forms from conception until it reaches age two. By the end of this document, one should be able to provide a simple description of this process with little to no difficulty.
Biological Development
“intro”
Biological development covers the changes within the human structure that are physical in nature. These involve areas such as brain development, and physical traits. In the case of conception, there are thought to be about 40,000 genes mixed to make a kind of genetic cocktail in the nucleus of each human cell. These genes manage everything, and they all interact. Some genes serve to inhibit, suppress, or repress the actions of other genes, and others try to identify and repair genetic and metabolic problems. There are however factors that activate or hide genes, and there are genes that change the speed or likelihood of specific chemical interactions. Because of this, human creation is an amazingly complex process!
“Pregnancy”
Before cells can divide, genes from both the mother and father come together into 23 - chromosome pairs. The DNA sequences comprising genes always go to the same location of a particular chromosome, which for convenience are numbered from biggest (1 - most genetic material) to smallest (22) plus the sex chromosomes (XX female, XY male). Eggs (ova) from Mom and sperm from Dad are special cells that contain a single set of 23 chromosomes. Conception completes the chromosome set and cell replication and differentiation begins: chromosome pairs separate and move to opposite sides of the nucleus, the entire cell divides into two new cells. The process repeats, more cells accumulate, genes in each region turn on or off, which is how individual organs and tissues form, and creation takes place. This process is called prenatal development. (Planet, 2006).
Prenatal development is broken down in what’s most commonly known as three trimesters. Separating pregnancy into three equal terms 1st trimester (germinal), 2nd trimester (embryonic), and 3rd trimester (fetal) makes it easier to understand. During the Germinal stage, conception begins and takes approximately eight weeks to complete. At this point the baby, is called a zygote (A one cell organism formed when the ova and sperm came together as one) (Planet, 2006) During this time the zygote travels down the fallopian tubes into the uterus where it becomes embedded into the uterus wall and the placenta forms to supply the miniature with protection, nutrients, oxygen, and waste removal. Once these things occur, the zygote becomes what’s known as an embryo. (Berger, 2005) The embryonic stage will then last another six weeks during which the miniature will continue to grow and finish forming most of it’s body system; including it’s organs. Basically the embryo begins to form its brain, spinal cord, heart, gastrointestinal tract, vertebra and other bones. Blood begins to pump, even the beginnings of eyes and ears, arms and legs become evident. Interesting how something as small and simple as hair follicles have begun to take shape so soon. Which brings us to the fetal stage (Rauch, 2006).
This is about the time the mother begins to find out she is pregnant. The fetal stage lasts from about week eight until the birth of the child. During this stage the miniature continues to grow as it’s cells divide. It becomes stronger, begins to move and becomes more functionally human. Let’s break it down a little more shall we? Around the ninth week to the third month of pregnancy, the fetus will be approximately three inches long. Its head will be nearly ½ of its full-scale size. Its face will be that of a human w/ closed eyelids that will not open until around 28 weeks. Teeth, hair and genitals are developed and red blood cells are producing in the liver (Rauch, 2006). During the fourth month of pregnancy, the fetus becomes about 6 inches in length, it’s skin covers it’s body in a transparant nature, muscle and bones continue to form and strengthen and the baby can now make sucking faces. The liver, intestants and pancreses begin to create their fluids as well (Rauch, 2006). During the fifth month of pregnacy, the fetus becomes about 8 inches, lanugo hair covers the body, it has eyebrows and eyelashes, finger nails and toenails, and is more active due to an increase of muscle mass. This is when the mother usually begins to feel butterfly movement in the abdomen and the heartbeat can be heard through special medical equipment during the normal prenatal visit (Rauch, 2006). By the sixth month of pregnacy the fetus is about 11 inches and weighs about 1lb 10 oz. It has startle reflexes, and foot/hand prints. Ait sacs are even forming in it’s tiny lungs (Rauch, 2006). As the seventh month of pregnacy rolls around the little one will reach about 15 inches, and almost 3 lbs. The brain begins to develop very rapidly and the nervous system and immune system form as well. A baby born during this stage may very well live even though complications and death are possible(Rauch, 2006). Once eight months of pregnacy copmes to terms, the fetus really does look like a full term baby only smaller. It’s about 15-17 inches, weighs just under 5lbs, and even though it’s lungs are not fully formed is capinle of rythmic breathing. It’s beginning to store iron, calcium and phosphorus in preporation for birth (Rauch, 2006). Which brings us to the ninth and final month., where the little boy or girl will have reached about 16-19 inches weigh 5-7 lbs, have long nails, along w/ courser thicker hair. A baby born at thirty-six weeks can survive and will probaably do so w/ intervention. However it is reccommended that a full term birth take place between 37-40 weeks making a true pregnacy exuivalant to 10 instead of 9 months (Rauch, 2006) .
“Birth”
We are not going to cover the birthing process. However, we will provide a list of things to consider. When thinking about pregnancy and delivery, one should begin to focus on things such as, what type of delivery do you wish to have assisted deliveries, a home birth, water birth, hospital birth, cesarean birth, and natural birth and do you want a midwife or a doctor? What about possible complications? How do you want those handled? And, of course, there are different medicines that can reduce the pain during delivery. You can choose to utilize those or not. The choices seem to be endless.
“Age 0-2 yrs”
By four months of age, a baby should weigh between ten to eighteen pounds, and be between twenty-three to twenty-seven inches long. He or she should be sleeping approximately fourteen to seventeen hours in a twenty-four hour period. They should be able to follow a rattle with their eyes and grasp at it along with hold it in their tiny hands. By this point he or she should also be able to roll over from stomach to back and sit with support (Oesterreich, 2002).
By eight months of age, a baby should weigh between fourteen to twenty-three pounds and be twenty-five to thirty inches long. It’s during this time that first teeth appear so the baby will probably place everything in his/her mouth to chew on them. By now they are capable of eating solid foods and require 3-4 feedings a day not to mention, the introduction of a sippy cup will helpful at this time along with ensuring eleven to thirteen hours sleep and two to three good naps a day (Oesterreich, 2002).
Around one year, a baby will weigh about 17-27 pounds, and be about twenty-seven to thirty-two inches long. They still need eleven to thirteen hours sleep but may stop taking afternoon or morning naps. Bottle weaning should be considered and started. Nourishment includes three square meals a day and two snacks in between (Oesterreich, 2002).
Between age twelve to twenty-four months (1-2yrs), a child will slow down on the milestones; just a little. They will weigh between twenty and thirty-two pounds, be approximately thirty to thirty-seven inches tall, walk well and run well. However their stopping skills will be questionable. A child of this age can drink from a straw, feed them selves, toss objects, open minor cabinets and drawers, and bend over without falling. Potty training can be started during this time depending on the child’s ability to control his or her bladder and cooperation. However completion may take another year or two to complete so patients is required (Oesterreich, 2002).
As you can see the child will more than double its birth weight, will form motor skills that once were mere reflexes, and develop rapidly on a physical level between the ages of conception to age two (Annenberg, 2005).
Cognitive Development
Cognitive development describes the intellectual or educational side of human growth. It includes but is not limited to the thinking process, perceptual ability, and communication. During the first year of an infant’s development, they undergo many many changes. It’s an exciting time for everyone involved.
During the first two months, the baby becomes familure with its home, the people around it, and begins to feel comfortable and aware. He or she probably will recognize the voice of its primary caregivers, and turn it’s head to seek out the direction in which the voice is coming from. He or she may even begin making cooing sounds and having reflex smiling. At this stage the infant will be easily startled and soothed by coddling and/or nursing (bottle or breast).
By the third and fourth months of life the infant will gain much more control over its body movements. It may begin to raise up on its arms while laying on it’s stomach on the floor, or begin stiffening its neck muscles in order to try to control its head. He or she will begin reaching for the objects that are close enough and by four months should be able to grasp and hold those objects. Vocal cords begin to form more logical sounds. Happiness brings squeals and sadness shouts or cries. Of course by four months these sounds can begin to take on even more wordy forms.
Between the ages of five and six months a baby will become a lot stronger, his or her head is steady and most children can sit w/ the help of a pillow. By the end of the sixth month the pillow may even be unnecessary especially since he/she will probably be rolling over and in unique cases standing up. Verbal skills will take on a new focus at this point as consonant and vowel sounds begin to blend themselves and he or she will probably recognize their own name.
Age seven to nine months is when the fun begins. The little one will be fully aware of the parent’s unconditional love and the limit testing will then begin. It’s during this time that babies learn to wipe tables clean, tip over plants, and stick little gadgets in holes. This is an exciting yet dangerous time for the little daredevil because they want to experiment and you want safety first.
As the child reaches nine to twelve months, a child’s strength is great; they are practicing walking, and moving around the home. They are mimicking words such as mommy, daddy, hello, and good-bye. They should be learning to hold the sippy cup and use it instead of a bottle all the time. It’s also during this time that self feeding should be encouraged by letting the little one hold a spoon during meal time (Oesterreich, 2002).
During the second year of cognitive development, a child has the vocabulary of several hundred words and can name the names of their toys. They can use two to three word sentences to describe thoughts and emotions and mimic words that are spoken by others. They are capable of showing their preferences of toys and because of such likes to show their likes between two objects. He or she will listen to short songs and can hum or sing favorite melodies. It’s during this time that the child is capable of using “manner words” such as please and thank you but may need prompted often to do so.
Psychosocial development
Psychosocial Development describes more intimate areas of human development. These intimate areas include a child’s emotional character, their personality, and ability to form and maintain interpersonal relationships.
By the fourth month stage, an infant has learned to cry to communicate pain, fear, discomfort, and loneliness. They enjoy being held, touched and rocked. They will respond and even become excited by the sound of a rattle or bell and return a smile when smiled at.
Around eight months of age, a baby will know it’s own name and respond when hearing it. He/she will show fear; such as falling off a high table or down a flight of stairs. He or she will smile, coo and babble in response to what it sees.He/she will respond to family and close friends. However, Most of the time, he or she spends observing the environment, imitating sounds, and getting to know the familiar scenery.
By age one year, a baby will begin to cling to his or her parent or caregivers, express anxiety towards strangers, and initiate sharing of toys and items w/ the expectation of getting the items back. This is also a self centered mode as the child begins to watch it’s self closer in the mirror and attach it’s self to favorite toys or blankets that they may or may not wish to share.
During the second year of development the child leaves that baby stage and begins to focus on growing up. They begin to use sentences in speech, are aware of the world around them and look for objects that are no longer in view. The most common word in a two-year-old’s vocabulary seems to be no. They have issues with sharing, they get angry, and even throw temper tantrums. This possessiveness knows no rules or boundaries and when confronted creates frustration that generally sends the child seeking comfort with a close friend or family member. Of course not everything about age two is terrible. Children around this age will also seek attention. They will experiment with new skills such as imitating older siblings and parents. They will give hugs and kisses without much regard to reason; which is what makes the frustration of the terrible two’s so enjoyable (Oesterreich, 2002).
Conclusion
As you can see, between the ages of conception and age two, little tikes have a lot to endure. They not only become human, they become intellectuals. They learn to breath, walk, talk, and communicate all in the first year of life and after that it’s simply time to build upon those skills in order to grow up to lead a productive life.
References
American Pregnancy Association (2007). Labor & Delivery Retrieved Jan 20, 2007
From American Pregnancy Association Website:
http://www.americanpregnancy.org/labornbirth/index.htm
Annenberg Media. (2007). Discovering Psychology. Retrieved Jan. 20, 2007
From WGBH Educational Foundation website:
http://www.learner.org/discoveringpsychology/development/0_2.html
Lee, Donna (2006). Your child's 1st year development - mo to mo Retrieved Jan 20, 2007
From Child Study.Net Website:
http://childstudy.net/your_childs_1st_year_development_month_to_month.php
Oesterreich, Lesia. M.S. (2002) Ages & Stages – NB to 1 year retrieved Jan 19, 2007
From The National Network for Child Care Website:
http://www.nncc.org/Child.Dev/ages.stages.new.one.html
Oesterreich, Lesia. M.S. (2002) Ages & Stages – 18 to 24mo retrieved Jan 19, 2007
From The National Network for Child Care Website:
http://www.nncc.org/Child.Dev/ages.stages.18m.24m.html
Planet Psych. (2006) Child Development Retrieved Jan. 20, 2007
From PlanetPsych Website:
http://www.planetpsych.com/zPsychology_101/child_development.htm
Rauch, Daniel. MD (2006) Fetal development. Retrieved Jan 20, 2007-02-09
From the Medline Plus Website:
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002398.htm
Around the world men and women embark on the wonderful experience of pregnancy. What does this mean? Well to most of us, it means the formation of a tiny new life but what goes on behind the scenes? How does a baby become a baby? What is the process of biological, cognitive, and psychosocial development when speaking about such microscopic treasures? How does this transfer as birth takes place and the tiny human miniature faces the next two years? On the following pages, we shall discuss these different areas, provide examples and show how the development of a baby as it forms from conception until it reaches age two. By the end of this document, one should be able to provide a simple description of this process with little to no difficulty.
Biological Development
“intro”
Biological development covers the changes within the human structure that are physical in nature. These involve areas such as brain development, and physical traits. In the case of conception, there are thought to be about 40,000 genes mixed to make a kind of genetic cocktail in the nucleus of each human cell. These genes manage everything, and they all interact. Some genes serve to inhibit, suppress, or repress the actions of other genes, and others try to identify and repair genetic and metabolic problems. There are however factors that activate or hide genes, and there are genes that change the speed or likelihood of specific chemical interactions. Because of this, human creation is an amazingly complex process!
“Pregnancy”
Before cells can divide, genes from both the mother and father come together into 23 - chromosome pairs. The DNA sequences comprising genes always go to the same location of a particular chromosome, which for convenience are numbered from biggest (1 - most genetic material) to smallest (22) plus the sex chromosomes (XX female, XY male). Eggs (ova) from Mom and sperm from Dad are special cells that contain a single set of 23 chromosomes. Conception completes the chromosome set and cell replication and differentiation begins: chromosome pairs separate and move to opposite sides of the nucleus, the entire cell divides into two new cells. The process repeats, more cells accumulate, genes in each region turn on or off, which is how individual organs and tissues form, and creation takes place. This process is called prenatal development. (Planet, 2006).
Prenatal development is broken down in what’s most commonly known as three trimesters. Separating pregnancy into three equal terms 1st trimester (germinal), 2nd trimester (embryonic), and 3rd trimester (fetal) makes it easier to understand. During the Germinal stage, conception begins and takes approximately eight weeks to complete. At this point the baby, is called a zygote (A one cell organism formed when the ova and sperm came together as one) (Planet, 2006) During this time the zygote travels down the fallopian tubes into the uterus where it becomes embedded into the uterus wall and the placenta forms to supply the miniature with protection, nutrients, oxygen, and waste removal. Once these things occur, the zygote becomes what’s known as an embryo. (Berger, 2005) The embryonic stage will then last another six weeks during which the miniature will continue to grow and finish forming most of it’s body system; including it’s organs. Basically the embryo begins to form its brain, spinal cord, heart, gastrointestinal tract, vertebra and other bones. Blood begins to pump, even the beginnings of eyes and ears, arms and legs become evident. Interesting how something as small and simple as hair follicles have begun to take shape so soon. Which brings us to the fetal stage (Rauch, 2006).
This is about the time the mother begins to find out she is pregnant. The fetal stage lasts from about week eight until the birth of the child. During this stage the miniature continues to grow as it’s cells divide. It becomes stronger, begins to move and becomes more functionally human. Let’s break it down a little more shall we? Around the ninth week to the third month of pregnancy, the fetus will be approximately three inches long. Its head will be nearly ½ of its full-scale size. Its face will be that of a human w/ closed eyelids that will not open until around 28 weeks. Teeth, hair and genitals are developed and red blood cells are producing in the liver (Rauch, 2006). During the fourth month of pregnancy, the fetus becomes about 6 inches in length, it’s skin covers it’s body in a transparant nature, muscle and bones continue to form and strengthen and the baby can now make sucking faces. The liver, intestants and pancreses begin to create their fluids as well (Rauch, 2006). During the fifth month of pregnacy, the fetus becomes about 8 inches, lanugo hair covers the body, it has eyebrows and eyelashes, finger nails and toenails, and is more active due to an increase of muscle mass. This is when the mother usually begins to feel butterfly movement in the abdomen and the heartbeat can be heard through special medical equipment during the normal prenatal visit (Rauch, 2006). By the sixth month of pregnacy the fetus is about 11 inches and weighs about 1lb 10 oz. It has startle reflexes, and foot/hand prints. Ait sacs are even forming in it’s tiny lungs (Rauch, 2006). As the seventh month of pregnacy rolls around the little one will reach about 15 inches, and almost 3 lbs. The brain begins to develop very rapidly and the nervous system and immune system form as well. A baby born during this stage may very well live even though complications and death are possible(Rauch, 2006). Once eight months of pregnacy copmes to terms, the fetus really does look like a full term baby only smaller. It’s about 15-17 inches, weighs just under 5lbs, and even though it’s lungs are not fully formed is capinle of rythmic breathing. It’s beginning to store iron, calcium and phosphorus in preporation for birth (Rauch, 2006). Which brings us to the ninth and final month., where the little boy or girl will have reached about 16-19 inches weigh 5-7 lbs, have long nails, along w/ courser thicker hair. A baby born at thirty-six weeks can survive and will probaably do so w/ intervention. However it is reccommended that a full term birth take place between 37-40 weeks making a true pregnacy exuivalant to 10 instead of 9 months (Rauch, 2006) .
“Birth”
We are not going to cover the birthing process. However, we will provide a list of things to consider. When thinking about pregnancy and delivery, one should begin to focus on things such as, what type of delivery do you wish to have assisted deliveries, a home birth, water birth, hospital birth, cesarean birth, and natural birth and do you want a midwife or a doctor? What about possible complications? How do you want those handled? And, of course, there are different medicines that can reduce the pain during delivery. You can choose to utilize those or not. The choices seem to be endless.
“Age 0-2 yrs”
By four months of age, a baby should weigh between ten to eighteen pounds, and be between twenty-three to twenty-seven inches long. He or she should be sleeping approximately fourteen to seventeen hours in a twenty-four hour period. They should be able to follow a rattle with their eyes and grasp at it along with hold it in their tiny hands. By this point he or she should also be able to roll over from stomach to back and sit with support (Oesterreich, 2002).
By eight months of age, a baby should weigh between fourteen to twenty-three pounds and be twenty-five to thirty inches long. It’s during this time that first teeth appear so the baby will probably place everything in his/her mouth to chew on them. By now they are capable of eating solid foods and require 3-4 feedings a day not to mention, the introduction of a sippy cup will helpful at this time along with ensuring eleven to thirteen hours sleep and two to three good naps a day (Oesterreich, 2002).
Around one year, a baby will weigh about 17-27 pounds, and be about twenty-seven to thirty-two inches long. They still need eleven to thirteen hours sleep but may stop taking afternoon or morning naps. Bottle weaning should be considered and started. Nourishment includes three square meals a day and two snacks in between (Oesterreich, 2002).
Between age twelve to twenty-four months (1-2yrs), a child will slow down on the milestones; just a little. They will weigh between twenty and thirty-two pounds, be approximately thirty to thirty-seven inches tall, walk well and run well. However their stopping skills will be questionable. A child of this age can drink from a straw, feed them selves, toss objects, open minor cabinets and drawers, and bend over without falling. Potty training can be started during this time depending on the child’s ability to control his or her bladder and cooperation. However completion may take another year or two to complete so patients is required (Oesterreich, 2002).
As you can see the child will more than double its birth weight, will form motor skills that once were mere reflexes, and develop rapidly on a physical level between the ages of conception to age two (Annenberg, 2005).
Cognitive Development
Cognitive development describes the intellectual or educational side of human growth. It includes but is not limited to the thinking process, perceptual ability, and communication. During the first year of an infant’s development, they undergo many many changes. It’s an exciting time for everyone involved.
During the first two months, the baby becomes familure with its home, the people around it, and begins to feel comfortable and aware. He or she probably will recognize the voice of its primary caregivers, and turn it’s head to seek out the direction in which the voice is coming from. He or she may even begin making cooing sounds and having reflex smiling. At this stage the infant will be easily startled and soothed by coddling and/or nursing (bottle or breast).
By the third and fourth months of life the infant will gain much more control over its body movements. It may begin to raise up on its arms while laying on it’s stomach on the floor, or begin stiffening its neck muscles in order to try to control its head. He or she will begin reaching for the objects that are close enough and by four months should be able to grasp and hold those objects. Vocal cords begin to form more logical sounds. Happiness brings squeals and sadness shouts or cries. Of course by four months these sounds can begin to take on even more wordy forms.
Between the ages of five and six months a baby will become a lot stronger, his or her head is steady and most children can sit w/ the help of a pillow. By the end of the sixth month the pillow may even be unnecessary especially since he/she will probably be rolling over and in unique cases standing up. Verbal skills will take on a new focus at this point as consonant and vowel sounds begin to blend themselves and he or she will probably recognize their own name.
Age seven to nine months is when the fun begins. The little one will be fully aware of the parent’s unconditional love and the limit testing will then begin. It’s during this time that babies learn to wipe tables clean, tip over plants, and stick little gadgets in holes. This is an exciting yet dangerous time for the little daredevil because they want to experiment and you want safety first.
As the child reaches nine to twelve months, a child’s strength is great; they are practicing walking, and moving around the home. They are mimicking words such as mommy, daddy, hello, and good-bye. They should be learning to hold the sippy cup and use it instead of a bottle all the time. It’s also during this time that self feeding should be encouraged by letting the little one hold a spoon during meal time (Oesterreich, 2002).
During the second year of cognitive development, a child has the vocabulary of several hundred words and can name the names of their toys. They can use two to three word sentences to describe thoughts and emotions and mimic words that are spoken by others. They are capable of showing their preferences of toys and because of such likes to show their likes between two objects. He or she will listen to short songs and can hum or sing favorite melodies. It’s during this time that the child is capable of using “manner words” such as please and thank you but may need prompted often to do so.
Psychosocial development
Psychosocial Development describes more intimate areas of human development. These intimate areas include a child’s emotional character, their personality, and ability to form and maintain interpersonal relationships.
By the fourth month stage, an infant has learned to cry to communicate pain, fear, discomfort, and loneliness. They enjoy being held, touched and rocked. They will respond and even become excited by the sound of a rattle or bell and return a smile when smiled at.
Around eight months of age, a baby will know it’s own name and respond when hearing it. He/she will show fear; such as falling off a high table or down a flight of stairs. He or she will smile, coo and babble in response to what it sees.He/she will respond to family and close friends. However, Most of the time, he or she spends observing the environment, imitating sounds, and getting to know the familiar scenery.
By age one year, a baby will begin to cling to his or her parent or caregivers, express anxiety towards strangers, and initiate sharing of toys and items w/ the expectation of getting the items back. This is also a self centered mode as the child begins to watch it’s self closer in the mirror and attach it’s self to favorite toys or blankets that they may or may not wish to share.
During the second year of development the child leaves that baby stage and begins to focus on growing up. They begin to use sentences in speech, are aware of the world around them and look for objects that are no longer in view. The most common word in a two-year-old’s vocabulary seems to be no. They have issues with sharing, they get angry, and even throw temper tantrums. This possessiveness knows no rules or boundaries and when confronted creates frustration that generally sends the child seeking comfort with a close friend or family member. Of course not everything about age two is terrible. Children around this age will also seek attention. They will experiment with new skills such as imitating older siblings and parents. They will give hugs and kisses without much regard to reason; which is what makes the frustration of the terrible two’s so enjoyable (Oesterreich, 2002).
Conclusion
As you can see, between the ages of conception and age two, little tikes have a lot to endure. They not only become human, they become intellectuals. They learn to breath, walk, talk, and communicate all in the first year of life and after that it’s simply time to build upon those skills in order to grow up to lead a productive life.
References
American Pregnancy Association (2007). Labor & Delivery Retrieved Jan 20, 2007
From American Pregnancy Association Website:
http://www.americanpregnancy.org/labornbirth/index.htm
Annenberg Media. (2007). Discovering Psychology. Retrieved Jan. 20, 2007
From WGBH Educational Foundation website:
http://www.learner.org/discoveringpsychology/development/0_2.html
Lee, Donna (2006). Your child's 1st year development - mo to mo Retrieved Jan 20, 2007
From Child Study.Net Website:
http://childstudy.net/your_childs_1st_year_development_month_to_month.php
Oesterreich, Lesia. M.S. (2002) Ages & Stages – NB to 1 year retrieved Jan 19, 2007
From The National Network for Child Care Website:
http://www.nncc.org/Child.Dev/ages.stages.new.one.html
Oesterreich, Lesia. M.S. (2002) Ages & Stages – 18 to 24mo retrieved Jan 19, 2007
From The National Network for Child Care Website:
http://www.nncc.org/Child.Dev/ages.stages.18m.24m.html
Planet Psych. (2006) Child Development Retrieved Jan. 20, 2007
From PlanetPsych Website:
http://www.planetpsych.com/zPsychology_101/child_development.htm
Rauch, Daniel. MD (2006) Fetal development. Retrieved Jan 20, 2007-02-09
From the Medline Plus Website:
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002398.htm
Saturday, January 19, 2013
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